Geraës.
About this period too a Prussian Major-General, the Prince of
Wied-Neuwied, who had been at leisure since the peace of 1815, devoted
himself to the study of natural science, geography, and history,
undertaking moreover, in company with the naturalists Freirciss and
Sellow, an exploring expedition in the interior of Brazil, having
special reference to its flora and fauna.
A few years later, i.e. in 1836, the French naturalist Alcide
d'Orbigny, who had won celebrity at a very early age, was appointed by
the governing body of the Museum to the command of an expedition to
South America, the special object of which was the study of the natural
history of the country. For eight consecutive years D'Orbigny wandered
about Brazil, Uruguay, the Argentine Republic, Patagonia, Chili,
Bolivia, and Peru.
"Such a journey," says Dumour in his funeral oration on D'Orbigny, "in
countries so different in their productions, climate, the character of
their soil, and the manners and customs of their inhabitants, was
necessarily full of ever fresh perils. D'Orbigny, endowed with a strong
constitution and untiring energy, overcame obstacles which would have
daunted most travellers. On his arrival in the cold regions of
Patagonia, amongst savage races constantly at war with each other, he
found himself compelled to take part, and to fight in the ranks of a
tribe which had received him hospitably. Fortunately for the intrepid
student his side was victorious, and he was left free to proceed on his
journey."
It took thirteen years of the hardest work to put together the results
of D'Orbigny's extensive researches. His book, which embraces nearly
every branch of science, leaves far behind it all that had ever before
been published on South America. History, archæology, zoology, and
botany all hold honoured positions in it; but the most important part
of this encyclopædic work is that relating to American man. In it the
author embodies all the documents he himself collected, and analyzes
and criticizes those which came to him at second hand, on physiological
types, and on the manners, languages, and religions of South America. A
work of such value ought to immortalize the name of the French scholar,
and reflect the greatest honour on the nation which gave him birth.
END OF THE FIRST PART.
PART II.
CHAPTER I.
VOYAGES ROUND THE WORLD, AND POLAR EXPEDITIONS.
The Russian fur trade--Kruzenstern appointed to the command of an
expedition--Noukha-Hiva--Nangasaki--Reconnaisance of the coast of
Japan--Yezo--The Ainos--Saghalien--Return to Europe--Otto von
Kotzebue--Stay at Easter Island--Penrhyn--The Radak Archipelago--Return
to Russia--Changes at Otaheite and the Sandwich Islands--Beechey's
Voyage--Easter Island--Pitcairn and the mutineers of the -Bounty---The
Paumoto Islands--Otaheite and the Sandwich Islands--The Bonin
Islands--Lütke--The Quebradas of Valparaiso--Holy week in Chili--New
Archangel--The Kaloches--Ounalashka--The Caroline Archipelago--The
canoes of the Caroline Islanders--Guam, a desert island--Beauty and
happy situation of the Bonin Islands--The Tchouktchees: their manners
and their conjurors--Return to Russia.
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Russians for the first
time took part in voyages round the world, Until that time their
explorations had been almost entirely confined to Asia, and their only
mariners of note were Behring, Tchirikoff, Spangberg, Laxman,
Krenitzin, and Saryscheff. The last-named took an important part in the
voyage of the Englishman Billings, a voyage by the way which was far
from achieving all that might have been fairly expected from the ten
years it occupied and the vast sums it cost.
Adam John von Kruzenstern was the first Russian to whom is due the
honour of having made a voyage round the world under government
auspices and with a scientific purpose.
Born in 1770, Kruzenstern entered the English navy in 1793. After six
years' training in the stern school which then numbered amongst its
leaders the most skilful sailors of the world, he returned to his
native land with a profound knowledge of his profession, and with his
ideas of the part Russia might play in Eastern Asia very considerably
widened.
During a stay of two years at Canton, in 1798 and 1799, Kruzenstern had
been witness of the extraordinary results achieved by some English fur
traders, who brought their merchandise from the northwest coasts of
Russian America. This trade had not come into existence until after
Cook's third voyage, and the English had already realized immense sums,
at the cost of the Russians, who had hitherto sent their furs to the
Chinese markets overland.
In 1785, however, a Russian named Chelikoff founded a fur-trading
colony on Kodiak Island, at about an equal distance from Kamtchatka and
the Aleutian Islands, which rapidly became a flourishing community. The
Russian government now recognized the resources of districts it had
hitherto considered barren, and reinforcements, provisions, and stores
were sent to Kamtchatka via Siberia.
Kruzenstern quickly realized how inadequate to the new state of things
was help such as this, the ignorance of the pilots and the errors in
the maps leading to the loss of several vessels every year, not to
speak of the injury to trade involved in a two years' voyage for the
transport of furs, first to Okhotsk, and thence to Kiakhta.
As the best plans are always the simplest they are sure to be the last
to be thought of, and Kruzenstern was the first to point out the
imperative necessity of going direct by sea from the Aleutian Islands
to Canton, the most frequented market.
On his return to Russia, Kruzenstern tried to win over to his views
Count Kuscheleff, the Minister of Marine, but the answer he received
destroyed all hope. Not until the accession of Alexander I., when
Admiral Mordinoff became head of the naval department, did he receive
any encouragement.
Acting on Count Romanoff's advice, the Russian Emperor soon
commissioned Kruzenstern to carry out the plan he had himself proposed;
and on the 7th August, 1802, he was appointed to the command of two
vessels for the exploration of the north-west coast of America.
Although the leader of the expedition was named, the officers and
seamen were still to be selected, and the vessels to be manned were not
to be had in either the Russian empire or at Hamburg. In London alone
were Lisianskoï, afterwards second in command to Kruzenstern, and the
builder Kasoumoff, able to obtain two vessels at all suitable to the
service in which they were to be employed. These two vessels received
the names of the -Nadiejeda- and the -Neva-.
In the meantime, the Russian government decided to avail itself of this
opportunity to send M. de Besanoff to Japan as ambassador, with a
numerous suite, and magnificent presents for the sovereign of the
country.
On the 4th August, 1803, the two vessels, completely equipped, and
carrying 134 persons, left the roadstead of Cronstadt. Flying visits
were paid to Copenhagen and Falmouth, with a view to replacing some of
the salt provisions bought at Hamburg, and to caulk the -Nadiejeda-,
the seams of which had started in a violent storm encountered in the
North Sea.
After a short stay at the Canary Islands, Kruzenstern hunted in vain,
as La Pérouse had done before him, for the Island of Ascension, as to
the existence of which opinion had been divided for some three hundred
years. He then rounded Cape Frio, the position of which he was unable
exactly to determine although he was most anxious to do so, the
accounts of earlier travellers and the maps hitherto laid down varying
from 23 degrees 6 minutes to 22 degrees 34 minutes. A reconnaissance of
the coast of Brazil was succeeded by a sail through the passage between
the islands of Gal and Alvaredo, unjustly characterized as dangerous by
La Pérouse, and on the 21st December, 1803, St. Catherine was reached.
The necessity for replacing the main and mizzen masts of the -Neva-
detained Kruzenstern for five weeks on this island, where he was most
cordially received by the Portuguese authorities.
On the 4th February, the two vessels were able to resume their voyage,
prepared to face all the dangers of the South Sea, and to double Cape
Horn, that bugbear of all navigators. As far as Staten Island the
weather was uniformly fine, but beyond it the explorers had to contend
with extremely violent gales, storms of hail and snow, dense fogs, huge
waves, and a swell in which the vessels laboured heavily. On the 24th
March, the ships lost sight of each other in a dense fog a little above
the western entrance to the Straits of Magellan. They did not meet
again until both reached Noukha-Hiva.
Kruzenstern having given up all idea of touching at Easter Island, now
made for the Marquesas, or Mendoza Archipelago, and determined the
position of Fatongou and Udhugu Islands, called Washington by the
American Captain Ingraham, who discovered them in 1791, a few weeks
before Captain Marchand, who named them Revolution Islands. Kruzenstern
also saw Hiva-Hoa, the Dominica of Mendaña, and at Noukha-Hiva met an
Englishman named Roberts, and a Frenchman named Cabritt, whose
knowledge of the language was of great service to him.
The incidents of the stay in the Marquesas Archipelago are of little
interest, they were much the same as those related in Cook's Voyages.
The total, but at the same time utterly unconscious immodesty of the
women, the extensive agricultural knowledge of the natives, and their
greed of iron instruments, are commented upon in both narratives.
Nothing is noticed in the later which is not to be found in the earlier
narrative, if we except some remarks on the existence of numerous
societies of which the king or his relations, priests, or celebrated
warriors, are the chiefs, and the aim of which is the providing of the
people with food in times of scarcity. In our opinion these societies
resemble the clans of Scotland or the Indian tribes of America.
Kruzenstern, however, does not agree with us, as the following
quotation will show.
"The members of these clubs are distinguished by different tattooed
marks upon their bodies; those of the king's club, consisting of
twenty-six members, have a square one on their breasts about six inches
long and four wide, and to this company Roberts belonged. The
companions of the Frenchman, Joseph Cabritt, were marked with a
tattooed eye, &c. Roberts assured me that he never would have entered
this association, had he not been driven to it by extreme hunger. There
was an apparent want of consistency in this dislike, as the members of
these companies are not only relieved from all care as to their
subsistence, but, even by his own account, the admittance into them is
a distinction that many seek to obtain. I am therefore inclined to
believe that it must be attended with the loss of some part of
liberty."
A reconnaissance of the neighbourhood of Anna Maria led to the
discovery of Port Tchitchagoff, which, though the entrance is
difficult, is so shut in by land that its waters are unruffled by the
most violent storm.
At the time of Kruzenstern's visit to Noukha-Hiva, cannibalism was
still largely practised, but the traveller had no tangible proof of the
prevalence of the custom. In fact Kruzenstern was very affably received
by the king of the cannibals, who appeared to exercise but little
authority over his people, a race addicted to the most revolting vices,
and our hero owns that but for the intelligent and disinterested
testimony of the two Europeans mentioned above he should have carried
away a very favourable opinion of the natives.
"In their intercourse with us," he says, "they always showed the best
possible disposition, and in bartering an extraordinary degree of
honesty, always delivering their cocoa-nuts before they received the
piece of iron that was to be paid for them. At all times they appeared
ready to assist in cutting wood and filling water; and the help they
afforded us in the performance of these laborious tasks was by no means
trifling. Theft, the crime so common to all the islanders of this
ocean, we very seldom met with among them; they always appeared
cheerful and happy, and the greatest good humour was depicted in their
countenances.... The two Europeans whom we found here, and who had both
resided with them several years, agreed in their assertions that the
natives of Nukahiva were a cruel, intractable people, and, without even
the exceptions of the female sex, very much addicted to cannibalism;
that the appearance of content and good-humour, with which they had so
much deceived us, was not their true character; and that nothing but
the fear of punishment and the hopes of reward, deterred them from
giving a loose to their savage passions. These Europeans described, as
eye-witnesses, the barbarous scenes that are acted, particularly in
times of war--the desperate rage with which they fall upon their
victims, immediately tear off their head, and sip their blood out of
the skull,[1] with the most disgusting readiness, completing in this
manner their horrible repast. For a long time I would not give credit
to these accounts, considering them as exaggerated; but they rest upon
the authority of two different persons, who had not only been witnesses
for several years to these atrocities, but had also borne a share in
them: of two persons who lived in a state of mortal enmity, and took
particular pains by their mutual recriminations to obtain with us
credit for themselves, but yet on this point never contradicted each
other. The very fact of Roberts doing his enemy the justice to allow,
that he never devoured his prey, but always exchanged it for hogs,
gives the circumstance a great degree of probability, and these reports
concur with several appearances we remarked during our stay here,
skulls being brought to us every day for sale. Their weapons are
invariably adorned with human hair, and human bones are used as
ornaments in almost all their household furniture; they also often gave
us to understand by pantomimic gestures that human flesh was regarded
by them as a delicacy."
[Footnote 1: "All the skulls which we purchased of them," says
Kruzenstern, "had a hole perforated through one end of them for this
purpose."]
There are grounds for looking upon this account as exaggerated. The
truth, probably, lies between the dogmatic assertions of Cook and
Forster and those of the two Europeans of Kruzenstern's time, one of
whom at least was not much to be relied upon, as he was a deserter.
And we must remember that we ourselves did not attain to the high state
of civilization we now enjoy without climbing up from the bottom of the
ladder. In the stone age our manners were probably not superior to
those of the natives of Oceania.
We must not, therefore, blame these representatives of humanity for not
having risen higher. They have never been a nation. Scattered as their
homes are on the wide ocean, and divided as they are into small tribes,
without agricultural or mineral resources, without connexions, and with
a climate which makes them strangers to want, they could but remain
stationary or cultivate none but the most rudimentary arts and
industries. Yet in spite of all this, how often have their instruments,
their canoes, and their nets, excited the admiration of travellers.
On the 18th May, 1804, the -Nadiejeda- and the -Neva- left Noukha-Hiva
for the Sandwich Islands, where Kruzenstern had decided to stop and lay
in a store of fresh provisions, which he had been unable to do at his
last anchorage, where seven pigs were all he could get.
This plan fell through, however. The natives of Owhyhee, or Hawaii,
brought but a very few provisions to the vessels lying off their
south-west coast, and even these they would only exchange for cloth,
which Kruzenstern could not give them. He therefore set sail for
Kamtchatka and Japan, leaving the -Neva- off the island of Karakakoua,
where Captain Lisianskoï relied upon being able to revictual.
[Illustration: New Zealanders. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
On the 11th July, the -Nadiejeda- arrived off Petropaulovski, the
capital of Kamtchatka, where the crew obtained the rest and fresh
provisions they had so well earned. On the 30th August, the Russians
put to sea again.
Overtaken by thick fogs and violent storms, Kruzenstern now hunted in
vain for some islands marked on a map found on a Spanish gallion
captured by Anson, and the existence of which had been alternately
accepted and rejected by different cartographers, though they appear in
La Billardière's map of his voyage.
The navigator now passed between the large island of Kiushiu and
Tanega-Sima, by way of Van Diemen Strait, till then very inaccurately
defined, rectified the position of the Liu-Kiu archipelago, which the
English had placed north of the strait, and the French too far south,
and sailed down, surveyed and named the coast of the province of
Satsuma.
"This part of Satsuma," says Kruzenstern, "is particularly beautiful:
and as we sailed along at a very trifling distance from the land, we
had a distinct and perfect view of the various picturesque situations
that rapidly succeed each other. The whole country consists of high
pointed hills, at one time appearing in the form of pyramids, at others
of a globular or conical form, and seeming as it were under the
protection of some neighbouring mountain, such as Peak Homer, or
another lying north-by-west of it, and even a third farther inland.
Liberal as nature has been in the adornment of these parts, the
industry of the Japanese seems not a little to have contributed to
their beauty; for nothing indeed can equal the extraordinary degree of
cultivation everywhere apparent. That all the valleys upon this coast
should be most carefully cultivated would not so much have surprised
us, as in the countries of Europe, where agriculture is not despised,
it is seldom that any piece of land is left neglected; but we here saw
not only the mountains even to their summits, but the very tops of the
rocks which skirted the edge of the coast, adorned with the most
beautiful fields and plantations, forming a striking as well as
singular contrast, by the opposition of their dark grey and blue colour
to that of the most lively verdure. Another object that excited our
astonishment was an alley of high trees, stretching over hill and dale
along the coast, as far as the eye could reach, with arbours at certain
distances, probably for the weary traveller--for whom these alleys must
have been constructed,--to rest himself in, an attention which cannot
well be exceeded. These alleys are not uncommon in Japan, for we saw a
similar one in the vicinity of Nangasaky, and another in the island of
Meac-Sima."
[Illustration: Coast of Japan.]
The -Nadiejeda- had hardly anchored at the entrance to Nagasaki harbour
before Kruzenstern saw several -daïmios- climb on board, who had come
to forbid him to advance further.
Now, although the Russians were aware of the policy of isolation
practised by the Japanese government, they had hoped that their
reception would have been less forbidding, as they had on board an
ambassador from the powerful neighbouring state of Russia. They had
relied on enjoying comparative liberty, of which they would have
availed themselves to collect information on a country hitherto so
little known and about which the only people admitted to it had taken a
vow of silence.
They were, however, disappointed in their expectations. Instead of
enjoying the same latitude as the Dutch, they were throughout their
stay harassed by a perpetual surveillance, as unceasing as it was
annoying. In a word, they were little better than prisoners.
Although the ambassador did obtain permission to land with his escort
"under arms," a favour never before accorded to any one, the sailors
were not allowed to get out of their boat, or when they did land the
restricted place where they were permitted to walk was surrounded by a
lofty palisading, and guarded by two companies of soldiers.
It was forbidden to write to Europe by way of Batavia, it was forbidden
to talk to the Dutch captains, the ambassador was forbidden to leave
his house--the word forbidden may be said to sum up the anything but
cordial reception given to their visitors by the Japanese.
Kruzenstern turned his long stay here to account by completely
overhauling and repairing his vessel. He had nearly finished this
operation when the approach was announced of an envoy from the Emperor,
of dignity so exalted that, in the words of the interpreter, "he dared
to look at the feet of his Imperial Majesty."
This personage began by refusing the Czar's presents, under pretence
that if they were accepted the Emperor would have to send back others
with an embassy, which would be contrary to the customs of the country;
and he then went on to speak of the law against the entry of any
vessels into the ports of Japan, and absolutely forbade the Russians to
buy anything, adding, however, at the same time, that the materials
already supplied for the refitting and revictualling the vessel would
be paid for out of the treasury of the Emperor of Japan. He further
inquired whether the repairs of the -Nadiejeda- would soon be finished.
Kruzenstern understood what was meant as soon as his visitor began to
speak, and hurried on the preparations for his own departure.
Truly he had not much reason to congratulate himself on having waited
from October to April for such an answer as this. So little were the
chief results hoped for by his government achieved, that no Russian
vessel could ever again enter a Japanese port. A short-sighted, jealous
policy, resulting in the putting back for half a century the progress
of Japan.
On the 17th April the -Nadiejeda- weighed anchor, and began a
hydrographic survey, which had the best results. La Pérouse had been
the only navigator to traverse before Kruzenstern the seas between
Japan and the continent. The Russian explorer was therefore anxious to
connect his work with that of his predecessor, and to fill up the gaps
the latter had been compelled for want of time to leave in his charts
of these parts.
"To explore the north-west and south-west coasts of Japan," says
Kruzenstern, "to ascertain the situation of the Straits of Sangar, the
width of which in the best charts--Arrowsmith's 'South Sea Pilot' for
instance, and the atlas subjoined to La Pérouse's Voyage--is laid down
as more than a hundred miles, while the Japanese merely estimated it to
be a Dutch mile; to examine the west coast of Yezo; to find out the
island of Karafuto, which in some new charts, compiled after a Japanese
one, is placed between Yezo and Sachalin, and the existence of which
appeared to me very probable; to explore this new strait and take an
accurate plan of the island of Sachalin, from Cape Crillon to the
north-west coast, from whence, if a good harbour were to be found
there, I could send out my long boat to examine the supposed passage
which divides Tartary from Sachalin; and, finally, to attempt a return
through a new passage between the Kuriles, north of the Canal de la
Boussole; all this came into my plan, and I have had the good fortune
to execute part of it."
Kruzenstern was destined almost entirely to carry out this detailed
plan, only the survey of the western coast of Japan and of the Strait
of Sangar, with that of the channel closing the Farakaï Strait, could
not be accomplished by the Russian navigator, who had, sorely against
his will, to leave the completion of this important task to his
successors.
Kruzenstern now entered the Corea Channel, and determined the longitude
of Tsusima, obtaining a difference of thirty-six minutes from the
position assigned to that island by La Pérouse. This difference was
subsequently confirmed by Dagelet, who can be fully relied upon.
The Russian explorer noticed, as La Pérouse had done before him, that
the deviation of the magnetic needle is but little noticeable in these
latitudes.
The position of Sangar Strait, between Yezo and Niphon, being very
uncertain, Kruzenstern resolved to determine it. The mouth, situated
between Cape Sangar (N. lat. 41 degrees 16 minutes 30 seconds and W.
long. 219 degrees 46 minutes) and Cape Nadiejeda (N. lat. 41 degrees 25
minutes 10 seconds, W. long. 219 degrees 50 minutes 30 seconds), is
only nine miles wide; whereas La Pérouse, who had relied, not upon
personal observation but upon the map of the Dutchman Vries, speaks of
it as ten miles across. Kruzenstern's was therefore an important
rectification.
Kruzenstern did not actually enter this strait. He was anxious to
verify the existence of a certain island, Karafonto, Tchoka, or Chicha
by name, set down as between Yezo and Saghalien in a map which appeared
at St. Petersburg in 1802, and was based on one brought to Russia by
the Japanese Koday. He then surveyed a small portion of the coast of
Yezo, naming the chief irregularities, and cast anchor near the
southernmost promontory of the island, at the entrance to the Straits
of La Pérouse.
Here he learnt from the Japanese that Saghalien and Karafonto were one
and the same island.
On the 10th May, 1805, Kruzenstern landed at Yezo, and was surprised to
find the season but little advanced. The trees were not yet in leaf,
the snow still lay thick here and there, and the explorer had supposed
that it was only at Archangel that the temperature would be so severe
at this time of year. This phenomenon was to be explained later, when
more was known as to the direction taken by the polar current, which,
issuing from Behring Strait, washes the shores of Kamtchatka, the
Kurile Islands, and Yezo.
During his short stay here and at Saghalien, Kruzenstern was able to
make some observations on the Ainos, a race which probably occupied the
whole of Yezo before the advent of the Japanese, from whom--at least
from those who have been influenced by intercourse with China--they
differ entirely.
[Illustration: Typical Ainos. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
"Their figure," says Kruzenstern, "dress, appearance, and their
language, prove that they are the same people, as those of Saghalien;
and the captain of the -Castricum-, when he missed the Straits of La
Pérouse, might imagine, as well in Aniwa as in Alkys, that he was but
in one island.... The Ainos are rather below the middle stature, being
at the most five feet two or four inches high, of a dark, nearly black
complexion, with a thick bushy beard, black rough hair, hanging
straight down; and excepting in the beard they have the appearance of
the Kamtschadales, only that their countenance is much more regular.
The women are sufficiently ugly; their colour, which is equally dark,
their coal black hair combed over their faces, blue painted lips, and
tattooed hands, added to no remarkable cleanliness in their clothing,
do not give them any great pretensions to loveliness.... However, I
must do them the justice to say, that they are modest in the highest
degree, and in this point form the completest contrast with the women
of Nukahiva and of Otaheite.... The characteristic quality of an Aino
is goodness of heart, which is expressed in the strongest manner in his
countenance; and so far as we were enabled to observe their actions,
they fully answered this expression.... The dress of the Ainos consists
chiefly of the skins of tame dogs and seals; but I have seen some in a
very different attire, which resembled the -Parkis- of the
Kamtschadales, and is, properly speaking a white shirt worn over their
other clothes. In Aniwa Bay they were all clad in furs; their boots
were made of seal-skins, and in these likewise the women were
invariably clothed."
After passing through the Straits of La Pérouse, Kruzenstern cast
anchor in Aniwa Bay, off the island of Saghalien. Here fish was then so
plentiful, that two Japanese firms alone employed 400 Ainos to catch
and dry it. It is never taken in nets, but buckets are used at
ebb-tide.
After having surveyed Patience Gulf, which had only been partially
examined by the Dutchman Vries, and at the bottom of which flows a
stream now named the Neva, Kruzenstern broke off his examination of
Saghalien to determine the position of the Kurile Islands, never yet
accurately laid down; and on the 5th June, 1805 he returned to
Petropaulovski, where he put on shore the ambassador and his suite.
In July, after crossing Nadiejeda Strait, between Matona and Rachona,
two of the Kurile Islands, Kruzenstern surveyed the eastern coast of
Saghalien, in the neighbourhood of Cape Patience, which presented a
very picturesque appearance, with the hills clothed with grass and
stunted trees and the shores with bushes. The scenery of the interior,
however, was somewhat monotonous, with its unbroken line of lofty
mountains.
The navigator skirted along the whole of this deserted and harbourless
coast to Capes Maria and Elizabeth, between which is a deep bay, with a
little village of thirty-seven houses nestling at the end, the only one
the Russians had seen since they left Providence Bay. It was not
inhabited by Ainos, but by Tartars, of which very decided proof was
obtained a few days later.
Kruzenstern next entered the channel separating Saghalien from Tartary,
but he was hardly six miles from the middle of the passage when his
soundings gave six fathoms only. It was useless to hope to penetrate
further. Orders were given to "'bout ship," whilst a boat was sent to
trace the coast-line on either side, and to explore the middle of the
strait until the soundings should give three fathoms only. A very
strong current had to be contended with, rendering this row very
difficult, and this current was rightly supposed to be due to the River
Amoor, the mouth of which was not far distant.
The advice given to Kruzenstern by the Governor of Kamtchatka, not to
approach the coast of Chinese Tartary, lest the jealous suspicions of
the Celestial Government should be aroused, prevented the explorer from
further prosecuting the work of surveying; and once more passing the
Kurile group, the -Nadiejeda- returned to Petropaulovsky.
The Commander availed himself of his stay in this port to make some
necessary repairs in his vessel, and to confirm the statements of
Captain Clerke, who had succeeded Cook in the command of his last
expedition, and those of Delisle de la Croyère, the French astronomer,
who had been Behring's companion in 1741.
During this last sojourn at Petropaulovsky, Kruzenstern received an
autograph letter from the Emperor of Russia, enclosing the order of St.
Anne as a proof of his Majesty's satisfaction with the work done.
On the 4th October, 1805, the -Nadiejeda- set sail for Europe;
exploring -en route- the latitudes in which, according to the maps of
the day, were situated the islands of Rica-de-Plata, Guadalupas,
Malabrigos, St. Sebastian de Lobos, and San Juan.
Kruzenstern next identified the Farellon Islands of Anson's map, now
known as St. Alexander, St. Augustine, and Volcanos, and situated south
of the Bonin-Sima group. Then crossing the Formosa Channel, he arrived
at Macao on the 21st November.
He was a good deal surprised not to find the -Neva- there, as he had
given instructions for it to bring a cargo of furs, the price of which
he proposed expending on Chinese merchandise. He decided to wait for
the arrival of the -Neva-.
Macao seemed to him to be falling rapidly into decay.
"Many fine buildings," he says, "are ranged in large squares,
surrounded by courtyards and gardens; but most of them uninhabited, the
number of Portuguese residents there having greatly decreased. The
chief private houses belong to the members of the Dutch and English
factories.... Twelve or fifteen thousand is said to be the number of
the inhabitants of Macao, most of whom, however, are Chinese, who have
so completely taken possession of the town, that it is rare to meet any
European in the streets, with the exception of priests and nuns. One of
the inhabitants said to me, 'We have more priests here than soldiers;'
a piece of raillery that was literally true, the number of soldiers
amounting only to 150, not one of whom is a European, the whole being
mulattos of Macao and Goa. Even the officers are not all Europeans.
With so small a garrison it is difficult to defend four large
fortresses; and the natural insolence of the Chinese finds a sufficient
motive in the weakness of the military, to heap insult upon insult."
Just as the -Nadiejeda- was about to weigh anchor, the -Neva- at last
appeared. It was now the 3rd November, and Kruzenstern went up the
coast in the newly arrived vessel as far as Whampoa, where he sold to
advantage his cargo of furs, after many prolonged discussions which his
firm but conciliating attitude, together with the intervention of
English merchants, brought to a successful issue.
On the 9th February, the two vessels once more together weighed anchor,
and resumed their voyage by way of the Sunda Isles. Beyond Christmas
Island they were again separated in cloudy weather, and did not meet
until the end of the trip. On the 4th May, the -Nadiejeda- cast anchor
in St. Helena Bay, sixty days' voyage from the Sunda Isles and
seventy-nine from Macao.
"I know of no better place," says Kruzenstern, "to get supplies after a
long voyage than St. Helena. The road is perfectly safe, and at all
times more convenient than Table Bay or Simon's Bay, at the Cape. The
entrance, with the precaution of first getting near the land, is
perfectly easy; and on quitting the island nothing more is necessary
than to weigh anchor and stand out to sea. Every kind of provision may
be obtained here, particularly the best kinds of garden stuffs, and in
two or three days a ship may be provided with everything."
On the 21st April, Kruzenstern passed between the Shetland and Orkney
Islands, in order to avoid the English Channel, where he might have met
some French pirates, and after a good voyage he arrived at Cronstadt on
the 7th August, 1806.
Without taking first rank, like the expedition of Cook or that of La
Pérouse, Kruzenstern's trip was not without interest. We owe no great
discovery to the Russian explorer, but he verified and rectified the
work of his predecessors. This was in fact what most of the navigators
of the nineteenth century had to do, the progress of science enabling
them to complete what had been begun by others.
Kruzenstern had taken with him in his voyage round the world the son of
the well-known dramatic author Kotzebue. The young Otto Kotzebue, who
was then a cadet, soon gained his promotion, and he was a naval
lieutenant when, in 1815 the command was given to him of the -Rurik-, a
new brig, with two guns, and a crew of no more than twenty-seven men,
equipped at the expense of Count Romantzoff. His task was to explore
the less-known parts of Oceania, and to cut a passage for his vessel
across the Frozen Ocean. Kotzebue left the port of Cronstadt on the
15th July, 1815, put in first at Copenhagen and Plymouth, and after a
very trying trip doubled Cape Horn, and entered the Pacific Ocean on
the 22nd January, 1816. After a halt at Talcahuano, on the coast of
Chili, he resumed his voyage; sighted the desert island of Salas of
Gomez, on the 26th March, and steered towards Easter Island, where he
hoped to meet with the same friendly reception as Cook and Pérouse had
done before him.
The Russians had, however, hardly disembarked before they were
surrounded by a crowd eager to offer them fruit and roots, by whom they
were so shamelessly robbed that they were compelled to use their arms
in self-defence, and to re-embark as quickly as possible to avoid the
shower of stones flung at them by the natives.
The only observation they had time to make during this short visit, was
the overthrow of the numerous huge stone statues described, measured,
and drawn, by Cook and La Pérouse.
On the 16th April, the Russian captain arrived at the Dog Island of
Schouten, which he called Doubtful Island, to mark the difference in
his estimate of its position and that attributed to it by earlier
navigators. Kotzebue gives it S. lat. 44 degrees 50 minutes and W.
long. 138 degrees 47 minutes.
During the ensuing days were discovered the desert island of
Romantzoff, so named in honour of the promoter of the expedition;
Spiridoff Island, with a lagoon in the centre; the Island Oura of the
Pomautou group, the Vliegen chain of islets, and the no less extended
group of the Kruzenstern Islands.
On the 28th April, the -Rurik- was near the supposed site of Bauman's
Islands, but not a sign of them could be seen, and it appeared probable
that the group had in fact been one of those already visited.
As soon as he was safely out of the dangerous Pomautou archipelago
Kotzebue steered towards the group of islands sighted in 1788 by Sever,
who, without touching at them, gave them the name of Penrhyn. The
Russian explorer determined the position of the central group of islets
as S. lat. 9 degrees 1 minute 35 seconds and W. long. 157 degrees 44
minutes 32 seconds, characterizing them as very low, like those of the
Pomautou group, but inhabited for all that.
At the sight of the vessel a considerable fleet of canoes put off from
the shore, and the natives, palm branches in their hands, advanced with
the rhythmic sound of the paddles serving as a kind of solemn and
melancholy accompaniment to numerous singers. To guard against
surprise, Kotzebue made all the canoes draw up on one side of the
vessel, and bartering was done with a rope as the means of
communication. The natives had nothing to trade with but bits of iron
and fish-hooks made of mother-of-pearl. They were well made and
martial-looking, but wore no clothes beyond a kind of apron.
At first only noisy and very lively, the natives soon became
threatening. They thieved openly, and answered remonstrances with
undisguised taunts. Brandishing their spears above their heads, they
seemed to be urging each other on to an attack.
When Kotzebue felt that the moment had come to put an end to these
hostile demonstrations, he had one gun fired. In the twinkling of an
eye the canoes were empty, their terrified crews unpremeditatingly
flinging themselves into the water with one accord. Presently the heads
of the divers reappeared, and, a little calmed down by the warning
received, the natives returned to their canoes and their bartering.
Nails and pieces of iron were much sought after by these people, whom
Kotzebue likens to the natives of Noukha-Hiva. They do not exactly
tatoo themselves, but cover their bodies with large scars.
[Illustration: "In the twinkling of an eye the canoes were empty."]
A curious fashion not before noticed amongst the islanders of Oceania
prevails amongst them. Most of them wear the nails very long, and those
of the chief men in the canoes extended three inches beyond the end of
the finger.
Thirty-six boats, manned by 360 men, now surrounded the vessel, and
Kotzebue, judging that with his feeble resources and the small crew of
the -Rurik- any attempt to land would be imprudent, set sail again
without being able to collect any more information on these wild and
warlike islanders.
Continuing his voyage towards Kamtchatka, the navigator sighted on the
21st May two groups of islands connected by a chain of coral reefs. He
named them Kutusoff and Suwaroff, determined their position, and made
up his mind to come back and examine them again. The natives in fleet
canoes approached the -Rurik-, but, in spite of the pressing invitation
of the Russians, would not trust themselves on board. They gazed at the
vessel in astonishment, talked to each other with a vivacity which
showed their intelligence, and flung on deck the fruit of the
pandanus-tree and cocoa-nuts.
Their lank black hair, with flowers fastened in it here and there, the
ornaments hung round their necks, their clothing of "two
curiously-woven coloured mats tied to the waist" and reaching below the
knee, but above all their frank and friendly countenances,
distinguished the natives of the Marshall archipelago from those of
Penrhyn.
On the 19th June the -Rurik- put in at New Archangel, and for
twenty-eight days her crew were occupied in repairing her.
On the 15th July Kotzebue set sail again, and five days later
disembarked on Behring Island, the southern promontory of which he laid
down in N. lat. 55 degrees 17 minutes 18 seconds and W. long. 194
degrees 6 minutes 37 seconds.
The natives Kotzebue met with on this island, like those of the North
American coast, wore clothes made of seal-skin and the intestines of
the walrus. The lances used by them were pointed with the teeth of
these amphibious animals. Their food consisted of the flesh of whales
and seals, which they store in deep cellars dug in the earth. Their
boats were made of leather, and they had sledges drawn by dogs.
Their mode of salutation is strange enough, they first rub each other's
noses and then pass their hands over their own stomachs as if rejoicing
over the swallowing of some tid-bit. Lastly, when they want to be very
friendly indeed, they spit in their own palms and rub their friends'
faces with the spittle.
The captain, still keeping his northerly course along the American
coast, discovered Schichmareff Bay, Saritschiff Island, and lastly, an
extensive gulf, the existence of which was not previously known. At the
end of this gulf Kotzebue hoped to find a channel through which he
could reach the Arctic Ocean, but he was disappointed. He gave his own
name to the gulf, and that of Kruzenstern to the cape at the entrance.
Driven back by bad weather, the -Rurik- reached Ounalashka on the 6th
September, halted for a few days at San Francisco, and reached the
Sandwich Islands, where some important surveys were made and some very
curious information collected.
On leaving the Sandwich Islands, Kotzebue steered for Suwaroff and
Kutusoff Islands, which he had discovered a few months before. On the
1st January, 1817, he sighted Miadi Island, to which he gave the name
of New Year's Island. Four days later he discovered a chain of little
low wooded islands set in a framework of reefs, through which the
vessel could scarcely make its way.
Just at first the natives ran away at the sight of Lieutenant
Schischmaroff, but they soon came back with branches in their hands,
shouting out the word -aidara- (friend). The officer repeated this word
and gave them a few nails in return, for which the Russians received
the collars and flowers worn as neck-ornaments by the natives.
This exchange of courtesies emboldened the rest of the islanders to
appear, and throughout the stay of the Russians in this archipelago
these friendly demonstrations and enthusiastic but guarded greetings
were continued. One native, Rarik by name, was particularly cordial to
the Russians, whom he informed that the name of his island and of the
chain of islets and -attolls-[2] connected with it was Otdia. In
acknowledgment of the cordial reception of the natives, Kotzebue left
with them a cock and hen, and planted in a garden laid out under his
orders a quantity of seeds, in the hope that they would thrive; but in
this he did not make allowance for the number of rats which swarmed
upon these islands and wrought havoc in his plantations.
[Footnote 2: Attolls are coral islands like circular belts surrounding
a smooth lagoon.---Trans.-]
On the 6th February, after ascertaining from what he was told by a
chief named Languediak, that these sparsely populated islands were of
recent formation, Kotzebue put to sea again, having first christened
the archipelago Romantzoff.
The next day a group of islets, on which only three inhabitants were
found, had its name of Eregup changed to that of Tchitschakoff, and
then an enthusiastic reception was given to Kotzebue on the Kawen
Islands by the tamon or chief. Every native here fêted the new-comers,
some by their silence--like the queen forbidden by etiquette to answer
the speeches made to her--some by their dances, cries, and songs, in
which the name of Totabou (Kotzebue) was constantly repeated. The chief
himself came to fetch Kotzebue in a canoe, and carried him on his
shoulders through the breakers to the beach.
In the Aur group the navigator noticed amongst a crowd of natives who
climbed on to the vessel, two natives whose faces and tattooing seemed
to mark them as of alien race. One of them, Kadu by name, especially
pleased the commander, who gave him some bits of iron, and Kotzebue was
surprised that he did not receive them with the same pleasure as his
companions. This was explained the same evening. When all the natives
were leaving the vessel, Kadu earnestly begged to be allowed to remain
on the -Rurik-, and never again to leave it. The commander only yielded
to his wishes after a great deal of persuasion.
"Kadu," says Kotzebue, "had scarcely obtained permission, when he
turned quickly to his comrades, who were waiting for him, declared to
them his intention of remaining on board the ship, and distributed his
iron among the chiefs. The astonishment in the boats was beyond
description: they tried in vain to shake his resolution; he was
immovable. At last his friend Edock came back, spoke long and seriously
to him, and when he found that his persuasion was of no avail, he
attempted to drag him by force; but Kadu now used the right of the
strongest, he pushed his friend from him, and the boats sailed off. His
resolution being inexplicable to me, I conceived a notion that he
perhaps intended to steal during the night, and privately to leave the
ship, and therefore had the night-watch doubled, and his bed made up
close to mine on the deck, where I slept, on account of the heat. Kadu
felt greatly honoured to sleep close to the tamon of the ship."
Born at Ulle, one of the Caroline Islands, more than 300 miles from the
group where he was now living, Kadu, with Edok and two other
fellow-countrymen, had been overtaken, when fishing, by a violent
storm. For eight months the poor fellows were at the mercy of the winds
and currents on a sea now smooth, now rough. They had never throughout
this time been without fish, but they had suffered the cruelest
tortures from thirst. When their stock of rain-water, which they had
used very sparingly, was exhausted, there was nothing left to them to
do but to fling themselves into the sea and try to obtain at the bottom
of the ocean some water less impregnated with salt, which they brought
to the surface in cocoa-nut shells pierced with a small opening. When
they reached the Aur Islands, even the sight of land and the immediate
prospect of safety did not rouse them from the state of prostration
into which they had sunk.
The sight of the iron instruments in the canoe of the strangers led the
people of Aur to decide on their massacre for the sake of their
treasures; but the tamon, Tigedien by name, took them under his
protection.
Three years had passed since this event, and the men from the Caroline
Islands, thanks to their more extended knowledge, soon acquired a
certain ascendancy over their hosts.
When the -Rurik- appeared, Kadu was in the woods a long way from the
coast. He was sent for at once, as he was looked upon as a great
traveller, and he might perhaps be able to say what the great monster
approaching the island was. Now Kadu had more than once seen European
vessels, and he persuaded his friends to go and meet the strangers, and
to receive them kindly.
Such had been Kadu's adventures. He now remained on the -Rurik-,
identified the other islands of the Archipelago, and lost no time in
facilitating intercourse between the Russians and the natives. Dressed
in a yellow mantle, and wearing a red cap like a convict, Kadu looked
down upon his old friends, and seemed not to recognize them. When a
fine old man with a flowing beard, named Tigedien, came on board, Kadu
undertook to explain to him and his companions the working of the
vessel and the use of everything about the ship. Like many Europeans,
he made up for his ignorance by imperturbable assurance, and had an
answer ready for every question.
Interrogated on the subject of a little box from which a sailor took a
black powder and applied it to his nostrils, Kadu glibly told some most
extraordinary stories, and wound up with a practical illustration by
putting the box against his own nose. He then flung it from him,
sneezing violently and screaming so loud that his terrified friends
fled away on every side; but when the crisis was over he managed to
turn the incident to his own advantage.
Kadu gave Kotzebue some general information about the group of islands
then under examination, and the Russians spent a month in taking
surveys, &c. All these islands, which the natives call Radack, were
under the control of one tamon, a man named Lamary. A few years later
Dumont d'Urville gave the name of Marshall to the group. According to
Kadu, another chain of islets, attolls, and reefs was situated some
little distance off on the west.
Kotzebue had not time to identify them, and steering in a northerly
direction he reached Ounalashka on the 24th April, where he had to
repair the serious damage sustained by the -Rurik- in two violent
storms. This done, he took on board some baidares (boats cased in skins
to make them water-tight), with fifteen natives of the Aleutian
Islands, who were used to the navigation of the Polar seas, and resumed
his exploration of Behring Strait.
Kotzebue had suffered very much from pain in his chest ever since when,
doubling Cape Horn, he had been knocked down by a huge wave and flung
overboard, an accident which would have cost him his life had he not
clung to some rope. The consequences were so serious to his health that
when, on the 10th July, he landed on the island of St. Lawrence, he was
obliged to give up the further prosecution of his researches.
On the 1st October the -Rurik- made a second short halt at the Sandwich
Islands where seeds and animals were landed, and at the end of the
month the explorers landed at Otdia in the midst of the enthusiastic
acclamations of the natives. The cats brought by the visitors were
welcomed with special enthusiasm, for the island was infested with
immense numbers of rats, who worked havoc on the plantations. Great
also was the rejoicing over the return of Kadu, with whom the Russians
left an assortment of tools and weapons, which made their owner the
wealthiest inhabitant of the archipelago.
[Illustration: Interior of a house at Radak. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
On the 4th November the -Rurik- left the Radak Islands, after
identifying the Legiep group, and cast anchor off Guam, one of the
Marianne islands, where she remained until the end of the month. A halt
of some weeks at Manilla enabled the commander to collect some curious
information about the Philippine Islands, to which he would have to
return later.
After escaping from the violent storms encountered in doubling the Cape
of Good Hope, the -Rurik- cast anchor on the 3rd August, 1818, in the
Neva, opposite Count Romantzoff's palace.
These three years of absence had been turned to good account by the
hardy navigators. In spite of the smallness of their number and the
poverty of their equipments, they had not been afraid to face the
terrors of the deep, to venture amongst all but unknown archipelagoes,
or to brave the rigours of the Arctic and Torrid zones. Important as
were their actual discoveries, their rectification of the errors of
their predecessors were of yet greater value. Two thousand five hundred
species of plants, one third of which were quite new, with numerous
details respecting the language, ethnography, religion, and customs of
the tribes visited, formed a rich harvest attesting the zeal, skill,
and knowledge of the captain as well as the intrepidity and endurance
of his crew.
When, therefore, the Russian government decided, in 1823, to send
reinforcements to Kamtchatka to put an end to the contraband trade
carried on in Russian America, the command of the expedition was given
to Kotzebue. A frigate called the -Predpriatie- was placed at his
disposal, and he was left free to choose his own route both going and
returning.
Kotzebue had gone round the world as a midshipman with Kruzenstern, and
that explorer now entrusted to him his eldest son, as did also Möller,
the Minister of Marine, a proof of the great confidence both fathers
placed in him.
The expedition left Cronstadt on the 15th August, 1823, reached Rio
Janeiro in safety, doubled Cape Horn on the 15th January, 1824, and
steered for the Pomautou Archipelago, where Predpriatie Island was
discovered and the islands of Araktschejews, Romantzoff, Carlshoff, and
Palliser were identified. On the 14th March anchor was cast in the
harbour of Matavar, Otaheite.
[Illustration: View of Otaheite.]
Since Cook's stay in this archipelago a complete transformation had
taken place in the manners and customs of the inhabitants.
In 1799 some missionaries settled in Otaheite, where they remained for
ten years, unfortunately without making a single conversion, and we add
with regret without even winning the esteem or respect of the natives.
Compelled at the end of these ten years, in consequence of the
revolutions which convulsed Otaheite, to take refuge at Eimeo and other
islands of the same group, their efforts were there crowned with more
success. In 1817, Pomaré, king of Otaheite, recalled the missionaries,
made them a grant of land, and declared himself a convert to
Christianity. His example was soon followed by a considerable number of
natives.
Kotzebue had heard of this change, but he was not prepared to find
European customs generally adopted.
At the sound of the discharge announcing the arrival of the Russians, a
boat, bearing the Otaheitian flag, put off from shore, bringing a pilot
to guide the -Predpriatie- to its anchorage.
The next day, which happened to be Sunday, the Russians were surprised
at the religious silence which prevailed throughout the island when
they landed. This silence was only broken by the sound of canticles and
psalms sung by the natives in their huts.
The church, a plain, clean building of rectangular form, roofed with
reeds and approached by a long avenue of palms, was well filled with an
attentive, orderly congregation, the men sitting on one side, the women
on the other, all with prayer-books in their hands. The voices of the
neophytes often joined in the chant of the missionaries, unfortunately
with better will than correctness or appropriateness.
If the piety of the islanders was edifying, the costumes worn by these
strange converts were such as somewhat to distract the attention of the
.
1
2
-
,
3
-
,
,
4
,
,
,
5
,
6
,
,
7
.
8
9
,
.
.
,
10
'
,
,
11
12
,
13
.
'
14
,
,
,
,
,
15
,
.
16
17
"
,
"
'
,
"
18
,
,
19
,
,
20
.
'
,
21
,
22
.
23
,
,
24
,
25
.
26
,
27
.
"
28
29
30
'
'
.
,
31
,
32
.
,
,
,
33
;
34
.
35
,
36
,
37
,
,
,
.
38
,
39
.
40
41
42
.
43
44
45
46
47
.
48
49
50
51
52
.
53
,
.
54
55
-
-
56
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
57
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
58
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
59
-
-
-
-
'
60
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
61
-
-
-
-
62
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
63
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
64
-
-
,
-
-
65
-
-
:
66
-
-
.
67
68
69
,
70
,
71
,
72
,
,
,
,
73
,
.
-
74
,
75
76
.
77
78
79
80
.
81
82
,
.
83
'
84
,
85
,
86
87
.
88
89
,
,
90
91
,
92
.
93
'
,
,
94
,
95
.
96
97
,
,
-
98
,
99
,
.
100
101
,
,
,
102
.
103
104
105
,
106
,
107
'
108
,
,
.
109
110
111
,
112
113
,
.
114
115
,
116
,
,
117
.
.
,
118
,
119
.
120
121
'
,
122
;
123
,
,
124
-
.
125
126
,
127
,
128
.
129
,
,
130
,
131
.
132
-
-
-
-
.
133
134
,
135
.
,
136
,
137
.
138
139
,
,
,
,
140
,
.
141
,
142
,
-
-
,
143
144
.
145
146
,
,
147
,
,
148
149
.
,
150
,
151
152
.
153
154
,
155
,
,
,
.
.
156
157
-
-
158
,
159
.
160
161
,
,
162
,
163
,
.
164
,
165
,
,
,
166
,
.
167
,
168
.
169
-
.
170
171
,
172
,
,
173
,
174
,
,
175
,
.
176
-
,
,
-
177
,
,
178
.
179
180
181
,
'
.
182
,
183
,
,
184
,
.
185
186
187
,
188
,
,
189
,
,
190
.
191
.
192
,
,
,
193
.
194
195
"
196
;
'
,
197
-
,
198
,
.
199
,
,
200
,
.
201
,
.
202
,
203
204
,
,
,
205
.
206
207
.
"
208
209
210
,
,
211
,
212
.
213
214
'
-
,
215
,
216
.
217
,
218
,
,
219
220
221
.
222
223
"
,
"
,
"
224
,
225
,
-
226
.
227
;
228
229
.
,
230
,
;
231
,
232
.
.
.
.
,
233
,
234
,
,
,
235
,
;
236
-
,
237
,
;
238
,
239
.
,
240
-
,
,
241
-
-
242
,
,
243
,
[
]
,
244
.
245
,
;
246
,
247
,
248
:
,
249
250
,
251
.
,
252
,
,
253
,
254
,
255
.
256
,
257
;
258
259
.
"
260
261
[
:
"
,
"
262
,
"
263
.
"
]
264
265
.
266
,
,
267
'
,
268
,
.
269
270
271
272
.
273
.
274
275
,
,
276
.
.
277
,
,
278
,
,
279
,
280
281
.
,
,
282
,
,
.
283
284
,
,
-
-
-
-
-
285
,
286
,
287
,
.
288
289
,
.
,
,
290
291
-
,
,
292
.
293
,
-
-
,
294
.
295
296
[
:
.
(
-
.
)
]
297
298
,
-
-
,
299
,
300
.
,
301
.
302
303
,
304
305
,
306
,
307
'
.
308
309
310
-
,
,
311
,
-
,
312
,
,
313
,
314
.
315
316
"
,
"
,
"
:
317
,
318
319
.
320
,
,
321
,
322
,
,
323
-
-
,
.
324
,
325
326
;
327
.
328
329
,
,
,
330
;
331
,
332
,
333
,
334
,
335
.
336
,
337
,
,
338
,
-
-
339
,
-
-
,
340
.
,
341
,
342
-
.
"
343
344
[
:
.
]
345
346
-
-
347
-
-
,
348
.
349
350
,
351
,
352
,
353
.
354
,
355
356
357
.
358
359
,
,
.
360
,
361
,
362
.
,
.
363
364
365
"
,
"
,
366
,
367
368
,
.
369
370
,
371
,
372
-
-
373
.
374
375
376
.
377
,
378
,
,
"
379
.
"
380
381
'
,
382
383
,
;
384
385
,
386
,
,
,
,
387
388
.
389
-
-
.
390
391
,
.
392
393
394
.
395
,
396
.
-
,
397
,
398
.
399
400
-
-
,
401
,
.
402
403
.
404
,
405
406
.
407
408
"
-
-
,
"
409
,
"
,
410
-
-
'
'
'
411
,
'
-
-
412
,
413
;
;
414
,
,
415
,
,
416
;
417
,
418
-
,
,
419
,
420
;
,
,
421
,
422
;
,
423
.
"
424
425
426
,
427
,
,
428
,
,
429
,
430
.
431
432
,
433
,
-
434
.
435
,
.
436
437
,
,
438
439
.
440
441
,
,
442
,
.
,
443
(
.
.
.
444
.
)
(
.
.
445
,
.
.
)
,
446
;
,
,
447
,
448
.
'
449
.
450
451
.
452
,
,
,
453
,
454
.
,
455
.
456
,
,
457
,
458
.
459
460
461
.
462
463
,
,
,
464
.
,
465
,
466
467
.
,
468
,
,
469
,
,
470
,
.
471
472
,
473
,
474
,
-
-
475
-
-
476
.
477
478
[
:
.
(
-
.
)
]
479
480
"
,
"
,
"
,
,
481
,
,
;
482
-
-
,
483
,
,
,
484
.
.
.
.
,
485
,
,
486
,
,
,
487
;
488
,
.
489
;
,
,
490
,
,
491
,
,
492
.
.
.
.
,
493
,
494
,
495
.
.
.
.
496
,
497
;
,
498
.
.
.
.
499
;
500
,
-
-
501
,
,
502
.
;
503
-
,
504
.
"
505
506
,
507
,
.
508
,
509
.
,
510
-
.
511
512
,
513
,
514
,
515
,
516
;
,
517
,
.
518
519
,
,
,
520
,
521
,
,
522
,
523
.
,
524
,
,
525
.
526
527
528
,
,
529
-
,
530
.
531
,
,
532
.
533
534
,
535
536
.
537
.
"
'
,
"
538
-
,
539
.
540
,
541
,
542
,
.
543
544
,
545
,
546
,
547
;
548
,
-
-
.
549
550
551
,
552
,
553
,
,
,
554
'
.
555
556
,
557
,
.
558
'
.
559
560
,
,
-
-
;
561
-
-
,
562
,
-
-
,
,
563
,
.
,
.
564
565
'
,
566
.
,
.
,
,
567
-
.
,
568
.
569
570
-
-
,
571
,
572
.
573
-
-
.
574
575
.
576
577
"
,
"
,
"
,
578
;
,
579
.
580
581
.
.
.
.
582
,
,
,
,
583
,
584
,
.
585
,
'
;
'
586
,
587
,
,
588
.
.
589
590
;
591
,
.
"
592
593
-
-
,
-
-
594
.
,
595
,
596
,
597
,
598
,
.
599
600
,
,
601
.
602
,
603
.
,
-
-
604
.
,
'
605
-
.
606
607
"
,
"
,
"
608
.
.
,
609
'
,
.
610
,
,
611
;
612
.
613
,
,
614
.
"
615
616
,
617
,
,
618
,
619
,
.
620
621
,
622
,
'
.
623
,
624
.
625
,
626
.
627
628
629
-
.
,
630
,
,
631
,
-
-
,
632
,
,
-
,
633
.
634
-
,
635
.
636
,
,
,
637
,
638
,
.
,
639
,
;
640
,
,
,
641
642
.
643
644
,
,
645
,
646
647
-
,
-
648
.
649
650
,
651
,
,
652
,
.
653
654
,
655
,
,
656
657
.
.
.
.
658
.
.
659
660
661
,
;
662
,
;
663
,
,
664
.
665
666
,
-
-
'
667
,
,
668
.
669
670
671
,
672
,
,
.
673
674
.
.
.
.
675
,
,
676
,
.
677
678
679
,
,
,
680
681
.
682
,
683
,
684
.
685
-
-
-
.
686
-
,
.
687
688
,
689
.
,
690
.
,
691
.
692
693
694
,
.
695
,
696
.
697
,
,
698
,
.
699
,
700
-
.
701
,
.
702
703
[
:
"
.
"
]
704
705
706
.
,
707
708
.
709
710
-
,
,
,
711
,
712
-
-
,
713
714
.
715
716
,
717
.
718
,
,
719
.
720
-
-
,
,
721
,
.
722
,
723
,
724
-
-
.
725
726
,
,
727
,
"
728
-
"
729
,
,
730
731
.
732
733
-
-
,
734
-
.
735
736
,
737
,
738
.
.
.
.
739
.
740
741
,
742
,
-
743
.
744
.
745
,
.
746
,
.
747
748
,
'
749
750
-
.
,
751
,
'
752
.
753
754
,
755
,
,
,
,
756
,
.
757
758
,
.
759
,
.
760
761
,
-
-
762
,
,
763
,
764
.
765
766
,
767
,
.
768
,
,
,
769
'
.
770
,
771
.
772
773
774
,
,
775
-
-
(
)
.
776
,
777
-
.
778
779
780
,
781
782
.
,
,
783
,
784
-
-
[
]
.
785
,
786
,
787
,
;
788
789
.
790
791
[
:
792
.
-
-
-
.
-
]
793
794
,
795
,
796
,
,
797
.
798
799
,
800
,
,
801
802
.
-
,
803
-
-
804
-
-
,
,
,
805
(
)
.
806
,
807
.
808
809
810
,
811
.
,
,
812
,
,
813
814
.
.
815
,
816
-
-
,
.
817
.
818
819
"
,
"
,
"
,
820
,
,
821
,
822
.
823
:
;
824
.
,
825
,
,
826
;
827
,
,
.
828
,
829
,
830
,
-
,
831
,
,
.
832
.
"
833
834
,
,
835
,
,
836
-
,
,
,
837
.
838
,
.
839
,
840
.
-
,
841
,
,
842
843
,
844
-
.
845
,
846
847
.
848
849
850
851
;
,
,
852
.
853
854
,
855
,
,
856
.
857
858
-
-
,
859
.
,
860
,
861
.
862
,
,
863
.
864
865
'
.
-
-
,
866
,
867
.
868
,
,
869
,
.
870
,
,
,
871
872
.
,
873
,
874
.
875
876
877
,
878
,
879
.
,
880
881
;
882
.
883
884
885
,
886
,
.
,
,
887
,
.
888
'
.
889
,
,
,
890
.
891
892
,
893
,
894
-
-
895
.
,
(
896
-
)
,
897
,
,
898
.
899
900
,
901
,
902
,
903
.
904
,
,
.
,
905
.
906
907
-
-
908
,
909
910
.
911
,
912
,
.
913
,
914
,
915
.
916
917
[
:
.
(
-
918
.
)
]
919
920
-
-
,
921
,
,
922
,
.
923
924
,
925
.
926
927
928
,
-
-
,
,
929
,
'
.
930
931
932
.
933
,
934
,
,
935
.
936
,
937
.
938
,
,
939
,
,
,
940
,
,
,
941
942
.
943
944
,
,
,
,
945
946
,
947
.
-
-
948
,
949
.
950
951
,
952
,
,
953
,
954
.
955
956
,
,
957
,
,
,
958
,
959
,
,
,
960
.
961
,
.
962
963
[
:
.
]
964
965
'
966
.
967
968
,
969
,
,
970
.
971
,
972
,
973
,
974
.
,
,
,
,
975
,
976
.
977
.
978
979
,
980
.
981
982
,
983
,
,
,
984
-
-
.
985
986
,
,
987
988
.
989
.
990
991
,
,
,
992
,
993
,
,
,
994
,
-
.
995
,
996
.
997
998
,
999
1000