breeze which made the passage of the bar very rough and all but
impossible, John Lander arrived on board. He had had to bear a good
many reproaches from Boy, for whom, it must be confessed, there was
some excuse; for had he not at his own cost rescued the brothers and
their people from slavery, brought them down in his own canoe, and fed
them, although very badly, all on the strength of their promise to pay
him with as much beef and rum as he could consume? whereas he was,
after all, roughly received by Lake, told that his advances would never
be refunded, and treated as a thief. Certainly he had cause to complain
and any one else would have made his prisoners pay dearly for the
disappointment of so many hopes, and the loss of so much money.
For all this, however, Boy brought John Lander safely to the brig.
Captain Lake received the traveller pretty cordially, but declared his
intention of making the king go back without so much as an obolus. Poor
Boy was full of the most gloomy forebodings. His haughty manner was
exchanged for an air of deprecating humility. An abundant meal was
placed before him, but he scarcely touched it. Richard Lander,
disgusted with the stinginess and bad faith of Lake, and unable to keep
his promises, ransacked all his possessions; and finding, at last, five
silver bracelets and a sabre of native manufacture, which he had
brought from Yarriba, he offered these to Boy, who accepted them.
Finally, the king screwed up courage enough to make his demand to the
captain, who, in a voice of thunder which it was difficult to believe
could have come from such a feeble body, declined to accede to it,
enforcing his refusal with a shower of oaths and threats, such as made
Boy, who saw, moreover, that the vessel was ready to sail, beat a hasty
retreat, and hurry off to his canoe.
Thus ended the vicissitudes of the Brothers Lander's journey. They were
in some danger in crossing the bar, but that was their last. They
reached Fernando Po, and then the Calabar River where they embarked on
the -Carnarvon- for Rio Janeiro, at which port Admiral Baker, then
commanding the station, got them a passage on board a transport-ship.
On the 9th June they disembarked at Portsmouth. Their first care, after
sending an account of their journey to Lord Goderich, then Colonial
Secretary, was to inform that official of the conduct of Captain Lake,
conduct which was of a nature to compromise the credit of the English
Government. Orders were at once given by the minister for the payment
of the sums agreed upon, which were perfectly just and reasonable.
Thus was completely and finally solved the geographical problem which
had for so many centuries occupied the attention of the civilized
world, and been the subject of so many different conjectures. The
Niger, or as the natives call it, the Joliba, or Quorra, is not
connected with the Nile, and does not lose itself in the desert sands
or in the waters of Lake Tchad; it flows in a number of different
branches into the ocean on the coast of the Gulf of Guinea, at the
point known as Cape Formosa. The entire glory of this discovery,
foreseen though it was by scientific men, belongs to the Brothers
Lander. The vast extent of country traversed by the Niger between
Yaoorie and the sea was completely unknown before their journey.
So soon as the discoveries made by Lander became known in England,
several merchants formed themselves into a company for developing the
resources of the new districts. In July, 1832, they equipped two
steamers, the -Quorra- and -Alburka-, which, under the command of
Messrs. Laird, Oldfield, and Richard Lander, appended the Niger as far
as Bocqua. The results of this commercial expedition were deplorable.
Not only was there absolutely no trade to be carried on with the
natives, but the crews of the vessels were decimated by fever. Finally,
Richard Lander, who had so often gone up and down the river, was
mortally wounded by the natives, on the 27th January, 1834, and died on
the morning of 5th February, at Fernando Po.
To complete our account of the exploration of Africa during the period
under review, we have still to speak of the various surveys of the
valley of the Nile, the most important of which were those by
Cailliaud, Russegger, and Rüppell.
Frederic Cailliaud was born at Nantes in 1787, and arrived in Egypt in
1815, having previously visited Holland, Italy, Sicily, part of Greece,
and European or Asiatic Turkey, where he traded in precious stones. His
knowledge of geology and mineralogy won for him a cordial reception
from Mehemet Ali, who immediately on his arrival commissioned him to
explore the course of the Nile and the desert.
This first trip resulted in the discovery of emerald mines at Labarah,
mentioned by Arab authors, which had been abandoned for centuries. In
the excavations in the mountain Cailliaud found the lamps, crowbars,
ropes, and tools used in working these mines by men in the employ of
Ptolemy. Near the quarries the traveller discovered the ruins of a
little town, which was probably inhabited by the ancient miners. To
prove the reality of his valuable discovery he took back ten pounds'
weight of emeralds to Mehemet Ali.
Another result of this journey was the discovery by the French explorer
of the old road from Coptos to Berenice for the trade of India.
From September, 1819, to the end of 1832, Cailliaud, accompanied by a
former midshipman named Letorzec, was occupied in exploring all the
known oases east of Egypt, and in tracing the Nile to 10 degrees N.
lat. On his first journey he reached Wady Halfa, and for his second
trip he made that place his starting-point. A fortunate accident did
much to aid his researches. This was the appointment of Ismail Pacha,
son of Mehemet Ali, to the command of an expedition to Nubia. To this
expedition Cailliaud attached himself.
Leaving Daraou in November, 1820, Cailliaud arrived, on the 5th January
in the ensuing year, at Dongola, and reached Mount Barka in the Chaguy
country, where are a vast number of ruins of temples, pyramids, and
other monuments. The fact of this district bearing the name of Merawe
had given rise to an opinion that in it was situated the ancient
capital of Ethiopia. Cailliaud was enabled to show this to be
erroneous.
[Illustration: View of a Merawe temple. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
The French explorer, accompanying Ismail Pacha in the character of a
mineralogist beyond Berber, on a quest for gold-mines, arrived at
Shendy. He then went with Letorzec to determine the position of the
junction of the Atbara with the Nile; and at Assour, not far from 17
degrees N. lat., he discovered the ruins of an extensive ancient town.
It was Meroë. Pressing on in a southerly direction between the 15th and
16th degrees of N. lat., Cailliaud next identified the mouth of the
Bahr-el-Abiad, or White Nile, visited the ruins of Saba, the mouth of
the Rahad, the ancient Astosaba, Sennaar, the river Gologo, the Fazoele
country, and the Toumat, a tributary of the Nile, finally reaching the
Singue country between the two branches of the river. Cailliaud was the
first explorer to penetrate from the north so near to the equator;
Browne had turned back at 16 degrees 10 minutes, Bruce at 11 degrees.
To Cailliaud and Letorzec we owe many observations on latitude and
longitude, some valuable remarks on the variation of the magnetic
needle, and details of the climate, temperature, and nature of the
soil, together with a most interesting collection of animals and
botanical specimens. Lastly, the travellers made plans of all the
monuments beyond the second cataract.
[Illustration: The Second Cataract of the Nile.]
The two Frenchmen had preluded their discoveries by an excursion to the
oasis of Siwâh. At the end of 1819 they left Fayum with a few
companions, and entered the Libyan desert. In fifteen days, and after a
brush with the Arabs, they reached Siwâh, having on their way taken
measurements of every part of the temple of Jupiter Ammon, and
determined, as Browne had done, its exact geographical position. A
little later a military expedition was sent to this same oasis, in
which Drovetti collected new and very valuable documents supplementing
those obtained by Cailliaud and Letorzec. They afterwards visited
successively the oasis of Falafre, never before explored by a European,
that of Dakel, and Khargh, the chief place of the Theban oasis. The
documents collected on this journey were sent to France, to the care of
M. Jomard, who founded on them his work called "Voyage à l'Oasis de
Siouah."
[Illustration: Temple of Jupiter Ammon.]
A few years later Edward Rüppell devoted seven or eight years to the
exploration of Nubia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and Abyssinia in 1824, he
ascended the White Nile for more than sixty leagues above its mouth.
Lastly, in 1836 to 1838, Joseph Russegger, superintendent of the
Austrian mines, visited the lower portion of the course of the
Bahr-el-Abiad. This official journey was followed by the important and
successful surveys afterwards made by order of Mehemet Ali in the same
regions.
CHAPTER III.
THE ORIENTAL SCIENTIFIC MOVEMENT AND AMERICAN DISCOVERIES.
The decipherment of cuneiform inscriptions, and the study of Assyrian
remains up to 1840--Ancient Iran and the Avesta--The survey of India
and the study of Hindustani--The exploration and measurement of the
Himalaya mountains--The Arabian Peninsula--Syria and Palestine--Central
Asia and Alexander von Humboldt--Pike at the sources of the
Mississippi, Arkansas, and Red River--Major Long's two expeditions--
General Cass--Schoolcraft at the sources of the Mississippi--The
exploration of New Mexico--Archæological expeditions in Central
America--Scientific expeditions in Brazil--Spix and Martin--Prince
Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied--D'Orbigny and American man.
Although the discoveries which we are now to relate are not strictly
speaking geographical, they nevertheless throw such a new light on
several early civilizations, and have done so much to extend the domain
of history and ideas, that we are compelled to dedicate a few words to
them.
The reading of cuneiform inscriptions, and the decipherment of
hieroglyphics are events so important in their results, they reveal to
us so vast a number of facts hitherto unknown, or distorted in the more
or less marvellous narratives of the ancient historians Diodorus,
Ctesias, and Herodotus, that it is impossible to pass over scientific
discoveries of such value in silence.
Thanks to them, we form an intimate acquaintance with a whole world,
with an extremely advanced civilization, with manners, habits, and
customs differing essentially from our own. How strange it seems to
hold in our hands the accounts of the steward of some great lord or
governor of a province, or to read such romances as those of -Setna-
and the -Two Brothers-, or stories such as that of the -Predestined
Prince-.
Those buildings of vast proportions, those superb temples, magnificent
hypogæa, and sculptured obelisks, were once nothing more to us than
sumptuous monuments, but now that the inscriptions upon them have been
read, they relate to us the life of the kings who built them, and the
circumstances of their erection.
How many names of races not mentioned by Greek historians, how many
towns now lost, how many of the smallest details of the religion, art,
and daily life, as well as of the political and military events of the
past, are revealed to us by the hieroglyphic and cuneiform
inscriptions.
Not only do we now see into the daily life of these ancient peoples, of
whom we had formerly but a very superficial knowledge, but we get an
idea even of their literature. The day is perhaps not far distant when
we shall know as much of the life of the Egyptians in the eighteenth
century before Christ as that of our forefathers in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries of our own era.
Carsten Niebuhr was the first to make and bring to Europe an exact and
complete copy of inscriptions at Persepolis in an unknown character.
Many attempts had been made to explain them, but all had been vain,
until in 1802 Grotefend, the learned Hanoverian philologist, succeeded,
by an inspiration of genius, in solving the mystery in which they were
enveloped.
Truly these cuneiform characters were strange and difficult to
decipher! Imagine a collection of nails variously arranged, and forming
groups horizontally placed. What did these groups signify? Did they
represent sounds and articulations, or, like the letters of our
alphabet, complete words? Had they the ideographic value of Chinese
written characters? What was the language hidden in them? These were
the problems to be solved! It appeared probable that the inscriptions
brought from Persepolis were written in the language of the ancient
Persians, but Rask, Bopp, and Lassen had not yet studied the Iranian
idioms and proved their affinity with Sanskrit.
It would be beyond our province to give an account of the ingenious
deductions, the skilful guesses, and the patient groping through which
Grotefend finally achieved the recognition of an alphabetic system of
writing, and succeeded in separating from certain groups of words what
he believed to be the names of Darius and Xerxes, thus attaining a
knowledge of several letters, by means of which he made out other
words. It is enough for us to say that the key was found by him, and to
others was left the task of completing and perfecting his work.
More than thirty years passed by, however, before any notable progress
was made in these studies. It was our learned fellow-countryman Eugène
Burnouf who gave them a decided impulse. Turning to account his
knowledge of Sanskrit and Zend, he found that the language of the
inscriptions of Persepolis was but a Zend dialect used in Bactriana,
which was still spoken in the sixth century B.C., and in which the
books of Zoroaster were written. Burnouf's pamphlet bears date 1836. At
the same period Lassen, a German scholar of Bonn, came to the same
conclusion on the same grounds.
The inscriptions already discovered were soon all deciphered; and with
the exception of a few signs, on the meaning of which scholars were not
quite agreed, the entire alphabet became known. But the foundations
alone were laid; the building was still far from finished. The
Persepolitan inscriptions appeared to be repeated in three parallel
columns. Might not this be a triple version of the same inscription in
the three chief languages of the Achæmenian Empire, namely, the
Persian, Median, and Assyrian or Babylonian. This guess proved correct;
and owing to the decipherment of one of the inscriptions, a test was
obtained, and the same plan was followed as that of Champollion with
regard to the Rosetta stone, on which was the tri-lingual inscription
in Greek, Demotic or Enchorial, and hieroglyphic characters.
In the second and third inscriptions were recognized Syro-Chaldee,
which, like Hebrew, Himyaric, and Arabic, belong to the Semitic group,
and a third idiom, to which the name of Medic was given, resembling the
dialects of the Turks and Tartars. But it would be presumptuous of us
to enlarge upon these researches. That was to be the task of the Danish
scholar Westergaard, of the Frenchmen De Saulcy and Oppert, and of the
Englishmen Morris and Rawlinson, not to mention others less celebrated.
We shall have to return to this subject later.
The knowledge of Sanskrit, and the investigation of Brahmanic
literature, had inaugurated a scientific movement which has gone on
ever since with increasing energy.
Long before Nineveh and Babylon were known as nations, a vast country,
called Iran by orientalists, which included Persia, Afghanistan, and
Beloochistan, was the scene of an advanced civilization, with which is
connected the name of Zoroaster, who was at once a conqueror, a
law-giver, and the founder of a religion. The disciples of Zoroaster,
persecuted at the time of the Mohammedan conquest, and driven from
their ancient home, where their mode of worship was still preserved,
took refuge, under the name of Parsees, in the north-west of India.
At the end of the last century, the Frenchman Aquetil Duperron brought
to Europe an exact copy of the religious books of the Parsees, written
in the language of Zoroaster. He translated them, and for sixty years
all the -savants- had found in them the source of all their religious
and philological notions of Iran. These books are known under the name
of the Zend-Avesta, a word which comprises the name of the language,
-Zend-, and the title of the book, -Avesta-.
As the knowledge of Sanskrit increased, however, that branch of science
required to be studied afresh by the light of the new method. In 1826
the Danish philologist Rask, and later Eugène Burnouf, with his
profound knowledge of Sanskrit, and by the help of a translation in
that language recently discovered in India, turned once more to the
study of the Zend. In 1834 Burnouf published a masterly treatise on the
Yacna, which marked an epoch. From the resemblance between the archaic
Sanskrit and the Zend came the recognition of the common origin of the
two languages, and the relationship, or rather, the identity, of the
races who speak them. Originally the names of the deities, the
traditions, the generic appellation, that of Aryan, of the two peoples,
are the same, to say nothing of the similarity of their customs. But it
is needless to dwell on the importance of this discovery, which has
thrown an entirely new light on the infancy of the human race, of which
for so many centuries nothing was known.
From the close of the eighteenth century, that is to say from the time
when the English first obtained a secure footing in India, the physical
study of the country was vigorously carried on, outstripping of course
for a time that of the ethnology and kindred subjects, which require
for their prosecution a more settled country and less exciting times.
It must be owned, however, that knowledge of the races of the country
to be controlled is as essential to the government as it is to
commercial enterprise; and in 1801 Lord Wellesley, as Governor for the
Company, recognizing the importance of securing a good map of the
English territories, commissioned Brigadier William Lambton, to
connect, by means of a trigonometrical survey, the eastern and western
banks of the Indus with the observatory of Madras. Lambton was not
content with the mere accomplishment of this task. He laid down with
precision one arc of the meridian from Cape Comorin to the village of
Takoor-Kera, fifteen miles south-east of Ellichpoor. The amplitude of
this arc exceeded twelve degrees. With the aid of competent officers,
amongst whom we must mention Colonel Everest, the Government of India
would have hailed the completion of the task of its engineers long
before 1840, if the successive annexation of new territories had not
constantly added to the extent of ground to be covered.
At about the same time with this progress in our knowledge of the
geography of India an impulse was given to the study of the literature
of India.
In 1776 an extract from the most important native codes, then for the
first time translated under the title of the Code of the Gentoos[1] was
published in London. Nine years later the Asiatic Society was founded
in Calcutta by Sir William Jones, the first who thoroughly mastered the
Sanskrit language. In "Asiatic Researches," published by this society,
were collected the results of all scientific investigations relating to
India. In 1789, Jones published his translation of the drama of
S'akuntala, that charming specimen of Hindu literature, so full of
feeling and refinement. Sanskrit grammars and dictionaries were now
multiplied, and a regular rivalry was set on foot in British India,
which would undoubtedly soon have spread to Europe, had not the
continental blockade prevented the introduction of works published
abroad. At this time an Englishman named Hamilton, a prisoner of war in
Paris, studied the Oriental MSS. in the library of the French capital,
and taught Frederick Schlegel the rudiments of Sanskrit, which it was
no longer necessary to go to India to learn.
[Footnote 1: Gentoo was the name given by old English writers to the
natives of Hindustan, and is now obsolete, having been superseded by
that of Hindoo.---Trans.-]
Lassen was Schlegel's pupil, and together they studied the literature
and antiquities of India, examining, translating, and publishing the
original texts; whilst at the same time Franz Bopp devoted himself to
the study of the language, making his grammars accessible to all, and
coming to the conclusion which was then startling, although it is now
generally accepted, of the common origin of the Indo-European
languages.
It was proved that the Vedas, that collection of sacred writings held
in too universal veneration to be tampered with, were written in a very
ancient and very pure idiom which had not been revived, and whose close
resemblance with the Zend, put back the date of the composition of the
books beyond the time of the separation of the Aryan family into two
branches. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana, dating from the Brahminical
or the period succeeding that of the Vedas, were next studied, together
with the Puranas. Owing to a profounder knowledge of the language and a
more intimate acquaintance with the mythology of the Hindus, scholars
were able to fix approximately the date of the composition of these
poems, to ascertain the numberless interpolations, and to extract
everything of actual historical or geographical value from those
marvellous allegories.
The result of these patient and minute investigations was a conviction
that the Celtic, Greek, Latin, Germanic, Slave, and Persian languages
had one common parent, and that parent none other than Sanskrit. If,
then, their language was the same, it followed as a matter of course
that the people had been also identical. The differences now existing
between these various idioms are accounted for by the successive
breakings up of the primitive people, approximate dates enable us to
realize the greater or less affinity of those languages with the
Sanskrit, and the nature of the words which they have borrowed from it,
words corresponding by their nature to the different degrees of advance
in civilization.
Moreover a very clear and definite notion was obtained of the kind of
life led by the founders of the Indo-European race, and the changes
brought about in it by the progress of civilization. The Vedas give us
a picture of the Aryan race before it migrated to India, and occupied
the Punjab and Cabulistan. By the aid of these poems we can look on at
struggles against the primitive races of Hindustan; whose resistance
was all the more desperate in that the conqueror, of their caste
divisions, left them only the lowest and most degraded. Thanks to the
Vedas we can realize every detail of the pastoral and patriarchal life
of the Aryans, a life so domestic and unruffled, that we mentally ask
ourselves whether the eager strife of the modern peoples is not a poor
exchange for the peaceful existence which their few wants secured to
their forefathers.
We cannot dwell longer on this subject, but the little that we have
said will be enough to show the reader the importance to history,
ethnography, and philology, of the study of Sanskrit. For further
details we refer him to the special works of Orientalists and to the
excellent historical manuals of Robiou, Lenormant, and Maspero. All the
scientific results of whatever kind obtained up to 1820 are also
skilfully and impartially summed up in Walter Hamilton's large work, "A
Geographical, Statistical, and Historical Description of Hindustan, and
the neighbouring Countries." This is a book which, by recording the
various stages of scientific progress, marks with accuracy the point
reached at any given epoch.
After this brief review of the labours of scholars in reference to the
intellectual and social life of the Hindus, we must turn to those
studies whose aim was a knowledge of the physical character of the
country.
One of the most surprising results obtained by the travels of Webb and
Moorcroft was the extraordinary height attributed by them to the
Himalaya mountains. According to them their elevation exceeded that of
the loftiest summits of the Andes. Colonel Colebrook had estimated the
average height of the chain at 22,000 feet, and even this would appear
to be less than the reality. Webb measured Yamunavatri, one of the most
remarkable peaks of the chain, and estimated its height above the level
of the plateau from which it rises as 20,000 feet, whilst the plateau
in its turn is 5000 feet above the plain. Not satisfied, however, with
what he looked upon as too perfunctory an estimate, he measured, with
all possible mathematical accuracy, the Dewalagiri or White Mountain,
and ascertained its height to be no less than 27,500 feet.
The most remarkable feature of the Himalaya chain is the succession of
these mountains, the ranges of heights rising one above the other. This
gives a far more vivid impression of their loftiness than would one
isolated peak rising from a plain and with its head lost among the
clouds.
The calculations of Webb and Colebrook, were soon verified by the
mathematical observations of Colonel Crawford, who measured eight of
the highest peaks of the Himalayas. According to him the loftiest of
all was Chumulari, situated near the frontiers of Bhoutan and Thibet,
which attains to a height of 30,000 feet above the sea-level.
Results such as these, confirmed by the agreement of so many observers,
who could not surely all be wrong, took the scientific world by
surprise. The chief objection urged was the fact that the snow-line
must in these districts be something like 30,000 feet above the
sea-level. It appeared, therefore, impossible to believe the assertion
of all the explorers, that the Himalayas were covered with forests of
gigantic pines. Finally, however, actual personal observation upset
theory. In a second journey, Webb climbed the Niti-Ghaut, the loftiest
peak in the world, the height of which he fixed at 16,814 feet, and not
only did he find no snow, but even the rocks rising 300 feet above it
were quite free from snow in summer. Moreover, the steep sides, where
breathing was difficult, were clothed with magnificent forests of
tapering pines, and firs, and wide-spreading cypress and cedar-trees.
"The high limits of perpetual snow on the Himalaya mountains," says
Desborough Cooley, "are justly ascribed by Mr. Webb to the great
elevation of the table-land or terrace from which these mountain peaks
spring. As the heat of our atmosphere is derived chiefly from the
radiation of the earth's surface, it follows that the temperature of
any elevated point must be modified in a very important degree by the
proximity and extent of the surrounding plains. These observations seem
satisfactorily to refute the objections made by certain savants
respecting the great height of the Himalaya mountains, which may be,
therefore, safely pronounced to be the loftiest mountain chain on the
surface of the globe."
We must now refer briefly to an expedition in the latitudes already
visited by Webb and Moorcroft. The traveller Fraser, with neither the
necessary instruments nor knowledge for measuring the lofty peaks he
ascended, was endowed with a great power of observation, and his
account of his journey is full of interest, and here and there very
amusing. He visited the source of the Jumna, and, at a height of more
than 25,000 feet, he found numerous villages picturesquely perched on
slopes carpetted with snow. He then made his way to Gangoutri, in spite
of the opposition of his guides, who represented the road thither as
extremely dangerous, declaring that it was swept by a pestilential wind
which would deprive any traveller, who ventured to expose himself to
it, of his senses. The explorer, however, was more than rewarded for
all his dangers and fatigues by the enjoyment he derived from the
grandeur and magnificence of the views he obtained.
[Illustration: "Villages picturesquely perched."]
"There is that," says Desborough Cooley in reference to Fraser's
journey, "in the appearance of the Himalaya range, which every person
who has seen them will allow to be peculiarly their own. No other
mountains that I have ever seen bear any resemblance to their
character; their summits shoot in the most fantastic and spiring peaks
to a height that astonishes, and, when viewed from an elevated
situation, almost induce the belief of an ocular deception."
We must now leave the peninsula of the Ganges for that of Arabia, where
we have to record the result of several interesting journeys. That of
Captain Sadler of the Indian army, claims the first rank. Sent by the
Governor of Bombay in 1819, on an embassy to Ibrahim Pacha, who was
then at war with the Wahabees, that officer crossed the entire
peninsula from Port El Katif on the Persian Gulf to Yambo on the Red
Sea.
Unfortunately the interesting account of this crossing of Arabia, never
before accomplished by a European, has not been separately published,
but is buried in a book which it is almost impossible to obtain, "The
Transactions of the Literary Society of Bombay."
At about the same time, 1821-1826, the English Government commissioned
Captains Moresby and Haines, of the naval service, to make
hydrographical surveys with a view to obtaining a complete chart of the
coasts of Arabia. These surveys were to be the foundation of the first
trustworthy map of the Arabian peninsula.
We have now only to mention the two expeditions of the French
naturalists, Aucher Eloy in the country of Oman, and Emile Botta in
Yemen, and to refer to the labours in reference to the idioms and
antiquities of Arabia of the French consul at Djedda, Fulgence Fresnel.
He was the first, in his letters on the history of the Arabs before
Islamism, published in 1836, to explain the Himyarite or Homeric
language and to recognize that it resembles rather the early Hebrew and
Syriac dialects, than the Arabic of the present day.
At the beginning of this volume we spoke of the explorations and
archæological and historical researches of Seetzen and Burckhardt in
Syria and Palestine. We have still to say a few words on an expedition
the results of which were entirely geographical. We refer to the
journey of the Bavarian naturalist Heinrich Schubert.
Schubert was a devout Catholic and an enthusiastic student, and the
melancholy scenery of the Holy Land with its wonderful legends, and the
lovely banks of the mysterious Nile with its historic memories, had for
him an extraordinary fascination. In his account of his journey we find
the deep impressions of the believer combined with the scientific
observations of the naturalist.
In 1837, Schubert, having crossed Lower Egypt and the peninsula of
Sinai, entered the Holy Land. The learned Bavarian pilgrim was
accompanied by two friends, Dr. Erdl and Martin Bernatz, a painter.
The travellers landed at El Akabah on the Red Sea, and went with a
small Arab caravan to El Khalil, the ancient Hebron. The route they
followed had never before been trodden by a European. It led through a
wide, flat valley terminating at the Dead Sea; a valley through which
the waters of the Dead Sea were supposed at one time to have flowed
towards the Red Sea. This hypothesis was shared by Burckhardt and many
others who had only seen the district from a distance, and who
attributed the cessation of the drainage to an upheaval of the soil.
The heights, as taken by the travellers, showed this hypothesis to be
altogether erroneous.
In fact from the lower end of the Persian Gulf the country presents a
continuous ascent for two or three days' march to the point called by
the Arabs the Saddle, from thence it begins to sink and slopes down
towards the Dead Sea. The Saddle is about 2100 feet above the
sea-level, at least that was the estimate given a year later by Count
Bertou, a Frenchman, who visited those localities at that time.
On their way down to the Bituminous Lake, Schubert and his companions
took some other barometrical observations, and were very much surprised
to find their instrument marking ninety-one feet -below- the Red Sea,
the levels gradually decreasing in height as they advanced. At first
they thought there must be some mistake, but finally, the evidence was
too strong for them, and it became proved beyond a doubt that the Dead
Sea could never have emptied its waters into the Red Sea for the very
excellent reason that the level of the former is very much lower than
that of the latter.
The depression of the Dead Sea is very much more noticeable when
Jericho is approached from Jerusalem. In that case the way lies through
a long valley with a very rapid slope, all the more remarkable as the
hilly plains of Judea, Peræ, and El Harran are very lofty, the latter
rising to a height of nearly 3000 feet above the sea-level.
The appearance of the country and the testimony of the instruments were
in such contradiction to the prevalent belief, that Messrs. Erdl and
Schubert were very unwilling to accept the results obtained, which they
attributed to their barometer being out of order and to a sudden
disturbance of the atmosphere. But on their way back to Jerusalem the
barometer returned to the mean height it had registered before they
started for Jericho. There was nothing for it then but to admit,
whether they liked it or not, that the Dead Sea was at least 600 feet
below the level of the Mediterranean, an estimate, as later researches
showed, which fell one-half short of the truth.
This, it will be admitted, was a fortunate rectification, which would
have considerable influence, by calling the attention of -savants- to a
phenomenon which was soon to be verified by other explorers.
At the same time, the survey of the basin of the Dead Sea was completed
and rectified. In 1838, two American Missionaries, Edward Robinson and
Eli Smith, gave quite a new impulse to Biblical geography. They were
the forerunners of that phalanx of naturalists, historians,
archæologists, and engineers, who, under the patronage or in
conjunction with the English Exploration Society, were soon to explore
the land of the patriarchs from end to end, making maps of it, and
achieving discoveries which threw a new light on the history of the
ancient peoples who, by turns, were possessors of this corner of the
Mediterranean basin.
But it was not only the Holy Land, so interesting on account of the
many associations it has for every Christian, which was the scene of
the researches of scholars and explorers; Asia Minor was also soon to
yield up her treasures to the curiosity of the learned world. That
country was visited by travellers in every direction. Parrot visited
Armenia; Dubois de Monpereux traversed the Caucasus in 1839. In 1825
and 1826, Eichwald explored the shores of the Caspian Sea; and lastly,
Alexander von Humboldt at the expense of the generous Nicholas, Emperor
of Russia, supplemented his intrepid work as a discoverer in the New
World by an exploration of Western Asia and the Ural Mountains.
Accompanied by the mineralogist Gustave Rose, the naturalist Ehrenberg,
well known for his travels in Upper Egypt and Nubia, and Baron von
Helmersen, an officer of engineers, Humboldt travelled through Siberia,
visited the gold and platinum mines of the Ural Mountains, and explored
the Caspian steppes and the Altai chain to the frontiers of China.
These learned men divided the work, Humboldt taking astronomical,
magnetic, and physical observations, and examining the flora and fauna
of the country, while Rose kept the journal of the expedition, which he
published in German between 1837 and 1842.
Although the explorers travelled very rapidly, at the rate of no less
than 11,500 miles in nine months, the scientific results of their
journey were considerable. In a first publication which appeared in
Paris in 1838, Humboldt treated only the climatology and geology of
Asia, but this fragmentary account was succeeded in 1843 by his great
work called "Central Asia." "In this," says La Roquette, "he has laid
down and systematized the principal scientific results of his
expedition in Asia, and has recorded some ingenious speculation as to
the shape of the continents and the configuration of the mountains of
Tartary, giving special attention to the vast depression which
stretches from the north of Europe to the centre of Asia beyond the
Caspian Sea and the Ural River."
We must now leave Asia and pass in review the various expeditions in
the New World, which have been sent out in succession since the
beginning of the present century. In 1807, when Lewis and Clarke were
crossing North America from the United States to the Pacific Ocean, the
Government commissioned a young officer, Lieutenant Zabulon Montgomery
Pike, to examine the sources of the Mississippi. He was at the same
time to endeavour to open friendly relations with any Indians he might
meet.
[Illustration: Map of the Missouri.]
Pike was well received by the Chief of the powerful Sioux nation and
presented with the pipe of peace, a talisman which secured to him the
protection of the allied tribes; he ascended the Mississippi, passing
the mouths of the Chippeway and St. Peter, important tributaries of
that great river. But beyond the confluence of the St. Peter with the
Mississippi as far as the Falls of St. Anthony, the course of the main
river is impeded by an uninterrupted series of falls and rapids. A
little below the 45th parallel of North latitude, Pike and his
companions had to leave their canoes and continue their journey in
sledges. To the severity of a bitter winter were soon added the
tortures of hunger. Nothing, however, checked the intrepid explorers,
who continued to follow the Mississippi, now dwindled down to a stream
only 300 roods wide, and arrived in February at Leech Lake, where they
were received with enthusiasm at the camp of some trappers and fur
hunters from Montreal.
[Illustration: Circassians. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
After visiting Red Cedar Lake, Pike returned to St. Louis. His arduous
and perilous journey had extended over no less than nine months; and
although he had not attained its main object, it was not without
scientific results. The skill, presence of mind, and courage of Pike
were recognized, and the government soon afterwards conferred on him
the rank of major, and appointed him to the command of a fresh
expedition. This time he was to explore the vast tract of country
between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, and to discover the
sources of the Arkansas and Red River. With twenty-three companions
Pike ascended the Arkansas, a fine river navigable to the mountains in
which it rises, that is to say for a distance of 2000 miles, except in
the summer, when its bed is encumbered with sand-banks. On this long
voyage, winter, from which Pike had suffered so much on his previous
trip, set in with redoubled vigour. Game was so scarce that for four
days the explorers were without food. The feet of several men were
frostbitten, and this misfortune added to the fatigue of the others.
The major, after reaching the source of the Arkansas, pursued a
southerly direction and soon came to a fine stream which he took for
the Red River.
This was the Rio del Norte, which rises in Colorado, then a Spanish
province, and flows into the Gulf of Mexico.
From what has been already said of the difficulties which Humboldt
encountered before he obtained permission to enter the Spanish
possessions in America, we may judge with what jealous suspicion the
arrival of strangers in Colorado was regarded. Pike was surrounded by a
detachment of Spanish soldiers, made prisoner with all his men, and
taken to Santa Fé. Their ragged garments, emaciated forms, and
generally miserable appearance did not speak much in their favour, and
the Spaniards at first took the Americans for savages. However, when
the mistake was recognized, they were escorted across the inland
provinces to Louisiana, arriving at Natchitoches on the 1st July, 1807.
The unfortunate end of this expedition cooled the zeal of the
government, but not that of private persons, merchants, and hunters,
whose numbers were continually on the increase. Many even completely
crossed the American continent from Canada to the Pacific. Amongst
these travellers we must mention Daniel William Harmon, a member of the
North-West Company, who visited Lakes Huron and Superior, Rainy Lake,
the Lake of the Woods, Manitoba, Winnipeg, Athabasca, and the Great
Bear Lake, all between N. lat. 47 degrees and 58 degrees, and reached
the shores of the Pacific. The fur company established at Astoria at
the mouth of the Columbia also did much towards the exploration of the
Rocky Mountains.
Four associates of that company, leaving Astoria in June, 1812,
ascended the Columbia, crossed the Rocky Mountains, and following an
east-south-east direction, reached one of the sources of the Platte,
descended it to its junction with the Missouri, crossed a district
never before explored, and arrived at St. Louis on the 30th May, 1813.
In 1811, another expedition composed of sixty men, started from St.
Louis and ascended the Missouri as far as the settlements of the Ricara
Indians, whence they made their way to Astoria, arriving there at the
beginning of 1812, after the loss of several men and great suffering
from fatigue and want of food.
These journeys resulted not only in the increase of our knowledge of
the topography of the districts traversed, but they also brought about
quite unexpected discoveries. In the Ohio valley between Illinois and
Mexico for instance, were found ruins, fortifications, and
entrenchments, with ditches and a kind of bastion, many of them
covering five or six acres of ground. What people can have constructed
works such as these, which denote a civilization greatly in advance of
that of the Indians, is a difficult problem of which no solution has
yet been found.
Philologists and historians were already regretting the dying out of
the Indian tribes, who, until then, had been only superficially
observed, and lamenting their extinction before their languages had
been studied. A knowledge of these languages and their comparison with
those of the old world, might have thrown some unexpected light upon
the origin of the wandering tribes.[2]
[Footnote 2: The author has evidently not seen Bancroft's "Native Races
of the Pacific," an exhaustive work in five volumes, published at New
York and San Francisco a few years ago, and which embodies the
researches of a number of gentlemen, who collected their information on
the spot, and whose contributions to our knowledge of the past and
present life of the Indians should certainly not be ignored.---Trans.-]
Simultaneously with the discovery of the ruins the flora and geology of
the country began to be studied, and in the latter science great
surprises were in store for future explorers. It was so important for
the American government to proceed rapidly to reconnoitre the vast
territories between the United States and the Pacific, that another
expedition was speedily sent out.
In 1819, the military authorities commissioned Major Long to explore
the districts between the Mississippi and the Rocky Mountains, to trace
the course of the Missouri and of its principal tributaries, to fix the
latitude and longitude of the chief places, to study the ways of the
Indian tribes, in fact to describe everything interesting either in the
aspect of the country or in its animal, vegetable, and mineral
productions.
Leaving Pittsburgh on the 5th March, 1819, on board the steamship
-Western Engineer-, the expedition arrived in May of the following year
at the junction of the Ohio with the Mississippi, and ascended the
latter river as far as St. Louis. On the 29th June, the mouth of the
Missouri was reached. During the month of July, Mr. Say, who was
charged with the zoological observations, made his way by land to Fort
Osage, where he was joined by the steamer. Major Long turned his stay
at Fort Osage to account by sending a party to examine the districts
between the Kansas and the Platte, but this party was attacked, robbed,
and compelled to turn back after losing all their horses. After
obtaining at Cow Island a reinforcement of fifteen soldiers, the
expedition reached Fort Lisa, near Council Bluff, on the 19th
September. There it was decided to winter. The Americans suffered
greatly from scurvy, and having no medicines to check the terrible
disorder, they lost 100 men, nearly a third of the whole party. Major
Long, who had meanwhile reached Washington in a canoe, brought back
orders for the discontinuation of the voyage up the Missouri, and for a
journey overland to the sources of the Platte, whence the Mississippi
was to be reached by way of the Arkansas and Red River. On the 6th
June, the explorers left Engineer's Fort, as they called their winter
quarters, and ascended the Platte Valley for more than a hundred miles,
its grassy plains, frequented by vast herds of bisons and deer,
supplying them with plenty of provisions.
Those boundless prairies, whose monotony is unbroken by a single
hillock, were succeeded by a sandy desert gradually sloping up, for a
distance of nearly four hundred miles, to the Rocky Mountains. This
desert, broken by precipitous ravines, -cañons-, and gorges, at the
bottom of which gurgles some insignificant stream, its banks clothed
with stunted and meagre vegetation, produces nothing but cacti with
sharp and formidable prickles.
On the 6th July, the expedition reached the foot of the Rocky
Mountains. Dr. James scaled one of the peaks, to which he gave his own
name, and which rises to a height of 11,500 feet above the sea level.
"From the summit of the peak," says the botanist, "the view towards the
north, west, and south-west, is diversified with innumerable mountains
all white with snow, and on some of the more distant it appears to
extend down to their bases. Immediately under our feet on the west, lay
the narrow valley of the Arkansas; which we could trace running towards
the north-west, probably more than sixty miles. On the north side of
the peak was an immense mass of snow and ice.... To the east lay the
great plain, rising as it receded, until, in the distant horizon, it
appeared to mingle with the sky."
Here the expedition was divided into two parties, one, under the
command of Major Long, to make its way to the sources of the Red River,
the other, under Captain Bell, to go down the Arkansas as far as Port
Smith. The two detachments separated on the 24th July. The former,
misled by the statements of the Kaskaia Indians and the inaccuracy of
the maps, took the Canadian for the Red River, and did not discover
their mistake until they reached its junction with the Arkansas. The
Kaskaias were the most miserable of savages, but intrepid horsemen,
excelling in lassoing the wild mustangs which are descendants of the
horses imported into Mexico by the Spanish conquerors. The second
detachment was deserted by four soldiers, who carried off the journals
of Say and Lieutenant Swift with a number of other valuable effects.
Both parties also suffered from want of provisions in the sandy
deserts, whose streams yield nothing but brackish and muddy water. The
expedition brought to Washington sixty skins of wild animals, several
thousands of insects, including five hundred new species, four or five
hundred specimens of hitherto unknown plants, numerous views of the
scenery, and the materials for a map of the districts traversed.
[Illustration: "Excelling in lassoing the wild mustangs."]
The command of another expedition was given in 1828 to Major Long,
whose services were thoroughly appreciated. Leaving Philadelphia in
April, he embarked on the Ohio, and crossed the state of the same name,
and those of Indiana and Illinois. Having reached the Mississippi, he
ascended that river to the mouth of the St. Peter, formerly visited by
Carver, and later by Baron La Hontan. Long followed the St. Peter to
its source, passing Crooked Lake and reaching Lake Winnipeg, whence he
explored the river of the same name, obtained a sight of the Lake of
the Woods and Rainy Lake, and arrived at the plateau which separates
the Hudson's Bay valley from that of the St. Lawrence. Lastly, he went
to Lake Superior by way of Cold Water Lake and Dog River.
Although all these districts had been constantly traversed by Canadian
pathfinders, trappers, and hunters for many years previously, it was
the first time an official expedition had visited them with a view to
the laying down of a map. The explorers were struck with the beauty of
the neighbourhood watered by the Winnipeg. That river, whose course is
frequently broken by picturesque rapids and waterfalls, flows between
two perpendicular granite walls crowned with verdure. The beauty of the
scenery, succeeding as it did to the monotony of the plains and
savannahs they had previously traversed, filled the explorers with
admiration.
The exploration of the Mississippi, which had been neglected since
Pike's expedition, was resumed in 1820 by General Cass, Governor of
Michigan. Leaving Detroit at the end of May with twenty men trained to
the work of pathfinders, he reached the Upper Mississippi, after
visiting Lakes Huron, Superior, and Sandy. His exhausted escort halted
to rest whilst he continued the examination of the river in a canoe.
For 150 miles the course of the Mississippi is rapid and uninterrupted,
but beyond that distance begins a series of rapids extending over
twelve miles to the Peckgama Falls.
Above this cataract the stream, now far less rapid, winds through vast
savannahs to Leech Lake. Having reached Lake Winnipeg, Cass arrived on
the 21st July at a new lake, to which he gave his own name, but he did
not care to push on further with his small party of men and inadequate
supply of provisions and ammunition.
The source of the Mississippi had been approached, but not reached. The
general opinion was that the river took its rise in a small sheet of
water known as Deer Lake, sixty miles from Cass Lake. Not until 1832,
however, when General Cass was Secretary of State for war, was this
important problem solved.
The command of an expedition was then given to a traveller named
Schoolcraft, who had in the previous year explored the Chippeway
country, north-west of Lake Superior. His party consisted of six
soldiers, an officer qualified to conduct hydrographic surveys, a
surgeon, a geologist, an interpreter, and a missionary.
Schoolcraft left St. Marie on the 7th June, 1832, visited the tribes
living about Lake Superior, and was soon on the St. Louis river. He was
then 150 miles from the Mississippi, and was told that it would take
him no less than ten days to reach the great river, on account of the
rapids and shallows. On the 3rd July, the expedition reached the
factory of a trader named Aitkin, on the banks of the river, and there
celebrated on the following day the anniversary of the independence of
the United States.
Two days later Schoolcraft found himself opposite the Peckgama Falls,
and encamped at Oak Point. Here the river winds a great deal amongst
savannahs, but guides led the party by paths which greatly shortened
the distance. Lake Winnipeg was then crossed, and on the 10th July,
Schoolcraft arrived at Lake Cass, the furthest point reached by his
predecessors.
[Illustration: Map of the sources of the Mississippi, 1836.]
A party of Chippeway Indians led the explorers to their settlement on
an island in the river. The friendliness of the natives led Cass to
leave part of his escort with them, and, accompanied by Lieutenant
Allen, the surgeon Houghton, a missionary, and several Indians, he
started in a canoe.
Lakes Tasodiac and Crooked were visited in turn. A little beyond the
latter, the Mississippi divides into two branches or forks. The guide
took Schoolcraft up the eastern, and after crossing Lakes Marquette, La
Salle, and Kubbakanna, he came to the mouth of the Naiwa, the chief
tributary of this branch of the Mississippi. Finally, after passing the
little lake called Usawa, the expedition reached Lake Itasca, whence
issues the Itascan, or western branch of the Mississippi.
Lake Itasca, or Deer Lake, as the French call it, is only seven or
eight miles in extent, and is surrounded by hills clothed with dark
pine woods. According to Schoolcraft it is some 1500 feet above the sea
level; but we must not attach too much importance to this estimate, as
the leader of the expedition had no instruments.
On their way back to Lake Cass, the party followed the western branch,
identifying its chief tributaries. Schoolcraft then studied the ways of
the Indians frequenting these districts, and made treaties with them.
To sum up, the aim of the government was achieved, and the Mississippi
had been explored from its mouth to its source. The expedition had
collected a vast number of interesting details on the manners, customs,
history, and language of the people, as well as numerous new or little
known species of flora and fauna.
The people of the United States were not content with these official
expeditions, and numbers of trappers threw themselves into the new
districts. Most of them being however absolutely illiterate, they could
not turn their discoveries to scientific account. But this was not the
case with James Pattie, who has published an account of his romantic
adventures and perilous trips in the district between New Mexico and
New California.
On his way down the River Gila to its mouth, Pattie visited races then
all but unknown, including the Yotans, Eiotaws, Papawans, Mokees,
Umeas, Mohawas, and Nabahoes, with whom but very little intercourse had
yet been held. On the banks of the Rio Eiotario he discovered ruins of
ancient monuments, stone walls, moats, and potteries, and in the
neighbouring mountains he found copper, lead, and silver mines.
We owe a curious travelling journal also to Doctor Willard, who, during
a stay of three years in Mexico, explored the Rio del Norte from its
source to its mouth.
Lastly, in 1831 Captain Wyeth and his brother explored Oregon, and the
neighbouring districts of the Rocky Mountains.
After Humboldt's journey in Mexico, one explorer succeeded another in
Central America. In 1787, Bernasconi discovered the now famous ruins of
Palenque. In 1822, Antonio del Rio gave a detailed description of them,
illustrated with drawings by Frederick Waldeck, the future explorer of
Palenque, that city of the dead.
Between 1805 and 1807, three journeys were successively taken in the
province of Chiapa and to Palenque by Captain William Dupaix and the
draughtsman Castañeda, and the result of their researches appeared in
1830 in the form of a magnificent work, with illustrations by Augustine
Aglio, executed at the expense of Lord Kingsborough.
Lastly, Waldeck spent the years 1832 and 1833 at Palenque, searching
the ruins, making plans, sections, and elevations of the monuments,
trying to decipher the hitherto unexplained hieroglyphics with which
they are covered, and collecting a vast amount of quite new information
alike on the natural history of the country and the manners and customs
of the inhabitants.
We must also name Don Juan Galindo, a Spanish colonel, who explored
Palenque, Utatlan, Copan, and other cities buried in the heart of
tropical forests.
[Illustration: View of the Pyramid of Xochicalco. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
After the long stay made by Humboldt in equinoctial America, the
impulse his explorations would doubtless otherwise have given to
geographical science was strangely checked by the struggle of the
Spanish colonies with the mother country. As soon, however, as the
native governments attained to at least a semblance of stability,
intrepid explorers rushed to examine this world, so new in the truest
sense, for the jealousy of the Spanish had hitherto kept it closed to
the investigations of scientific men.
Many naturalists and engineers now travelled or settled in South
America. Soon indeed, that is in 1817-1820, the Austrian and Bavarian
Governments sent out a scientific expedition, to the command of which
they appointed Doctors Spix and Martins, who collected a great deal of
information on the botany, ethnography, and geography of these hitherto
little known districts--Martins publishing, at the expense of the
Austrian and Bavarian governments, a most important work on the flora
of the country, which may be looked upon as a model of its kind.
At the same time the editors of special publications, such as Malte
Brun's -Annales des Voyages- and the -Bulletin de la Société de
Géographie-, cordially accepted and published all the communications
addressed to them, including many on Brazil and the province of Minas
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[
:
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[
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.
(
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]
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;
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724
725
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731
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744
,
745
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746
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-
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748
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,
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.
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,
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,
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763
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787
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795
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[
:
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.
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830
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875
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,
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.
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,
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.
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,
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,
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[
:
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.
]
899
900
901
.
902
,
,
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,
,
,
,
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.
905
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.
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,
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,
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.
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,
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913
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,
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.
917
;
,
918
.
919
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,
,
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922
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923
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.
926
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929
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948
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.
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957
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[
:
.
(
-
976
.
)
]
977
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,
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.
,
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,
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,
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.
986
987
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.
,
-
,
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,
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-
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,
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,
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,
.
995
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,
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-
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-
,
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,
1000