garments consist of trousers which reach only half way down the thigh.
They wear cloaks of skins which hang negligently from the shoulder.
Their turbans are not large, but are very high and flattened in front.
No scissors ever touch either hair or beard. Their arms are bows and
arrows or muskets. Men of rank have very handsome bows, and never pay a
visit without being armed with them. Almost the whole Punjab belongs to
Runjeet Sing, who in 1805 was only one among many chiefs in the
country. At the time of our expedition, he had acquired the sovereignty
of the whole country occupied by the Sikhs, and had taken the title of
king."
No incident of any moment marked the return of the embassy to Delhi. In
addition to the narrative of events which had taken place before their
eyes, its members brought back invaluable documents concerning the
geography of Afghanistan and Cabulistan, the climate, animals, and
vegetable and mineral productions of that vast country.
Elphinstone devotes several chapters of his narrative to the origin,
history, government, legislation, condition of the women, language, and
commerce of these countries; facts that were largely appropriated by
the best informed newspapers when the recent English expedition to
Afghanistan was undertaken.
His work ends with an exhaustive treatise upon the tribes who form the
population of Afghanistan, and a summary of invaluable information
respecting the neighbouring countries.
Elphinstone's narrative is curious, interesting, and valuable for many
reasons, and may be consulted in our own day with advantage.
[Illustration: Persian costumes. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
The zeal of the East India Company was indefatigable. One expedition
had no sooner returned than another was started, with different
instructions. It was highly important to be thoroughly -au fait- of the
ever-changing Asiatic policy, and to prevent coalition between the
various native tribes against the conquerors of the soil. In 1812, a
new idea, and a more peaceful one, gave rise to the journey of
Moorcroft and Captain Hearsay to Lake Manasarowar, in the province of
the Un-dés, which is a portion of Little Thibet.
This time the object was to bring back a flock of Cashmere goats, whose
long silk hair is used in the manufacture of the world-famed shawls. In
addition, it was proposed to disprove the assertion of the Hindus that
the source of the Ganges is beyond the Himalayas, in Lake Manasarowar.
A difficult and perilous task! It was first of all necessary to
penetrate into Nepaul, whilst the government of that country made such
an attempt very difficult, and thence to enter a region from which the
natives of Nepaul are excluded, and with still greater reason the
English.
The explorers disguised themselves as Hindu pilgrims. Their suite
consisted of twenty-five persons, one of whom pledged himself to walk
in strides of four feet! This was certainly a rough method of
ascertaining the distance traversed!
Messrs. Moorcroft and Hearsay passed through Bareilly, and followed
Webb's route as far as Djosimath, which place they left on the 26th of
May, 1812. They soon had to cross the last chain of the Himalayas, with
increasing difficulties, owing to the rarity of the villages, which
caused a scarcity of provisions and service, and the bad roads, at so
great a height above the level of the sea.
Nevertheless they saw Daba, where there is an important lamasery,
Gortope, Maisar; and, a quarter of a mile from Tirthapuri, curious hot
springs.
The original narrative, which appeared in the "Annales des Voyages,"
speaks of this water as flowing from two openings six inches in
diameter in a calcareous plain some three miles in extent, and which is
raised in almost every direction from ten to twelve feet above the
surrounding country. It is formed of the earthy deposits left by the
water in cooling. The water rises four inches above the level of the
plain. It is clear, and so warm that one cannot keep a hand in it
longer than a few minutes. It is surrounded by a thick cloud of smoke.
The water, flowing over a horizontal surface, hollows out basins of
various shapes, which as they receive the earthy deposits contract
again. When they are filled up, the flow of the water again hollows out
a new reservoir, which in its turn becomes full. Flowing thus from one
to the other, it finally reaches the plain below. The deposit left by
the water is as white as the purest stucco close to the opening, a
little further it becomes pale yellow, and further still
saffron-coloured. At the other spring it is first rose-coloured, and
then dark red. These different colours are to be found in the
calcareous plain, and are no doubt the work of centuries.
Tirthapuri, the residence of a lama, is of great antiquity, and is a
favourite rendezvous for the faithful, as a wall more than 400 feet
long and four wide, formed of stones upon which prayers are inscribed,
sufficiently testifies.
Upon the 1st of August the travellers left this place, hoping to reach
Lake Manasarowar, and leaving on the right Lake Rawan-rhad, which is
supposed to be the source of the largest branch of the Sutlej.
Lake Manasarowar lies at the foot of immense sloping prairies, to the
south of the gigantic mountains. This is the most venerated of all the
sacred places of the Hindus, which is no doubt owing to its distance
from Hindustan, the dangers and fatigues of the journey, and the
necessity of pilgrims providing themselves with money and provisions.
Hindu geographers regard this lake as the source of the Ganges, the
Sutlej, and the Kali rivers. Moorcroft had no doubt as to the error of
this assertion as regards the Ganges. Desiring to ascertain the truth
as to the other rivers, he explored the steep banks of the lake, and
found a number of streams which flowed into it, but none flowing out of
it. It is possible that before the earthquake which destroyed Srinagar,
the lake had an outlet, but Moorcroft found no trace of it. The lake is
situated between the Himalayas and the Cailas chain, and is of
irregular oblong shape, five leagues long by four wide.
The end of the expedition was attained. Moorcroft and Hearsay returned
towards India, passed by Kangri, and saw Rawan-rhad; but Moorcroft was
too weak, and could not continue the tour; he regained Tirthapuri and
Daba, and suffered a great deal in crossing the ghat which separates
Hindustan from Thibet.
The narrative describes the wind which comes from the snow-covered
mountains of Bhutan as cold and piercing, and the ascent of the
mountain as long and painful, its descent slippery and steep, making
precautions necessary. "We suffered greatly," says the writer; "our
goats escaped by the negligence of their drivers, and climbed up to the
edge of a precipice some hundred feet in height. A mountaineer
disturbing them from their perilous position, they began the descent,
running down a very steep incline. The hinder ones kicked up the
stones, which, falling with violence, threatened to strike the
foremost. It was curious to note how cleverly they managed to run, and
avoid the falling stones."
Very soon the Gorkhalis, who had hitherto been content to place
obstacles in the way of the travellers, approached them with intent to
stop them. For some time the firmness displayed by the English kept
them at bay; but at last, gaining courage from their numbers, they
began an attack.
"Twenty men," says Moorcroft, "threw themselves upon me. One seized me
by my neck, and, pressing his knees against me, tried to strangle me by
tightening my cravat; another passed a cord round my legs and pulled me
from behind. I was on the point of fainting. My gun, upon which I was
leaning, escaped my hold; I fell; they dragged me up by my feet until I
was nearly garotted. When at last I rose, nothing could exceed the
expression of fierce delight on the faces of my conquerors. Fearing
that I should attempt to escape, two soldiers held me by a rope and
gave me a blow from time to time, no doubt to remind me of my position.
Mr. Hearsay had not supposed that he should be attacked so soon; he was
rinsing out his mouth when the hubbub began, and did not hear my cries
for help. Our men could not find the few arms we possessed; some
escaped, I know not how; the others were seized, amongst them Mr.
Hearsay. He was not bound as I was; they contented themselves with
holding his arms."
[Illustration: "Two soldiers held me."]
The chief of this band of savages informed the two Englishmen that they
had been recognized, and were arrested for having travelled in the
country in the disguise of Hindu pilgrims. A fakir, whom Moorcroft had
engaged as a goat-herd, succeeded in escaping, and took two letters to
the English authorities. Aid was sent, and on the 1st of November the
prisoners were released. Not only were excuses offered for their
treatment, but what had been taken from them was returned, and the
Rajah of Nepaul gave them permission to leave his dominions. All's well
that ends well!
To complete our sketch, we must give an account of Mr. Fraser's
expedition to the Himalayas, and Hodgson's exploration to the source of
the Ganges, in 1817.
Captain Webb, as we have seen, had traced the course of that river past
the valley of Dhoun, to Cadjani, near Reital. Leaving this spot upon
the 28th of May, 1817, Captain Hodgson reached the source of the Ganges
in three days, and proceeded to Gangautri. He found that the river
issues from a low arch in the midst of an enormous mass of frozen snow,
more than 300 feet high. The stream was already of considerable size,
being no less than twenty-seven feet wide and eighteen inches deep. In
all probability the Ganges first emerged into the light at this spot.
Captain Hodgson wished to solve various questions; for example:--What
was the length of the river under the frozen snow? Is it the product of
the melting of these snows? or did it spring from the ground? But,
wishing to explore further upwards than his guides advised, the
traveller sank into the snow up to his neck, and had to retrace his
steps with great difficulty. The spot from which the Ganges issues is
situated 12,914 feet above the level of the sea, in the Himalayas.
Hodgson also explored the source of the Jumna. At Djemautri the mass of
snow from which the river makes its escape is no less than 180 feet
wide and more than forty feet deep, between two perpendicular walls of
granite. This source is situated on the south-east slope of the
Himalayas.
The extension of the British power in India was necessarily attended by
considerable danger. The various native States, many of which could
boast of a glorious past, had only yielded in obedience to the
well-known political principle "divide and govern," ascribed to
Machiavelli. But the day might come when they would merge their
rivalries and enmities, to make common cause against the invader.
This was anything but a cheering prospect for the Company, whose policy
it was to maintain the system that had hitherto worked so well. Certain
neighbouring States, still powerful enough to regard the growth of the
British power with jealousy, might serve as harbours of refuge to the
discontented, and become the centres of dangerous intrigues. Of all
these neighbouring States that which demanded the strictest
surveillance was Persia, not only on account of its contiguity to
Russia, but because Napoleon was known to have designs in connexion
with it which nothing but his European wars prevented him from putting
into execution.
In February, 1807, General Gardane, who had gained his promotion in the
wars of the Republic, and had distinguished himself at Austerlitz,
Jena, and Eylau, was appointed Minister Plenipotentiary to Persia, with
instructions to ally himself with Shah Feth-Ali against England and
Russia. The selection was fortunate, for the grandfather of General
Gardane had held a similar post at the court of the shah. Gardane
crossed Hungary, and reached Constantinople and Asia Minor; but when he
entered Persia, Abbas Mirza had succeeded his father Feth-Ali.
The new shah received the French ambassador with respect, loaded him
with presents, and granted certain privileges to Catholics and French
merchants. These were, however, the only results of the mission, which
was thwarted by the English General Malcolm, whose influence was then
paramount; and Gardane, disheartened by finding all his efforts
frustrated, and recognizing that success was hopeless, returned to
France the following year.
His brother Ange de Gardane, who had acted as his secretary, published
a brief narrative of the journey, containing several curious details
respecting the antiquities of Persia, which have been, however, largely
supplemented by works brought out by Englishmen.
The French Consul, Adrien Dupré, attached to Gardane's mission, also
published a work, under the title of "Voyage en Perse, fait dans les
années 1807 à 1809, en traversant l'Anatolie, la Mésopotamie, depuis
Constantinople jusqu'à l'extremité du golfe Persique et de là à Irwan,
suivi de détails sur les moeurs, les usages et le commerce des Persans,
sur la cour de Téhéran et d'une notice des tribus de la Perse." The
book bears out the assertions of its title, and is a valuable
contribution to the geography and ethnography of Persia.
The English, who made a much longer stay in the country than the
French, were better able to collect the abundant materials at hand, and
to make a judicious selection from them.
Two works were long held to be the chief authorities on the subject.
One of these was by James Morier, who availed himself of the leisure he
enjoyed as secretary to the embassy to acquaint himself with every
detail of Persian manners, and on his return to England published
several Oriental romances, which obtained a signal success, owing to
the variety and novelty of the scenes described, and the fidelity to
nature of every feature, however minute.
The second of the two volumes alluded to above was the large quarto
work by John Macdonald Kinneir, on the geography of Persia. This book,
which made its mark, and left far behind it everything previously
published on the subject, not only gives, as its title implies, very
valuable information on the boundaries of the country, its mountains,
rivers, and climate, but also contains interesting and trustworthy
details respecting its government, constitution, army, commerce,
animal, vegetable, and mineral productions, population, and revenue.
After giving an exhaustive and brilliant picture of the material and
moral resources of the Persian Empire, Kinneir goes on to describe its
different provinces, quoting from the mass of valuable documents
accumulated by himself, thus making his work the most complete and
impartial yet issued.
Kinneir passed the years 1808 to 1814 in travelling about Asia Minor,
Armenia, and Kurdistan; and the different posts held by him during that
period were such as to give him exceptional opportunities for making
observations and comparing their results. In his several capacities as
captain in the service of the Company, political agent to the Nawab of
the Carnatic, or private traveller, his critical acumen was never at
fault; and his wide knowledge of Oriental character and Oriental
manners, enabled him to recognize the true significance of many an
event and many a revolution which would have escaped the notice of less
experienced observers.
At the same time, William Price, also a captain in the East India
Company's service, who had been attached as interpreter and secretary
to Sir William Gore Ouseley's embassy to Persia in 1810, devoted
himself to the study of the cuneiform character. Many had previously
attempted to decipher it, with results as various as they were
ridiculous; and, like those of his predecessors and contemporaries,
Price's opinions were mere guess-work; but he succeeded in interesting
a certain class of students in this obscure branch of research, and may
be said to have perpetuated the theories of Niebuhr and other
Orientalists.
To Price we owe an account of the journey of the English embassy to the
Persian court, after which he published two essays on the antiquities
of Persepolis and Babylon.
Mr. Ouseley, who had accompanied his brother Sir William as secretary,
availed himself of his sojourn at the Court of Teheran to study
Persian. His works do not, however, bear upon geography or political
economy, but treat only of inscriptions, coins, manuscripts, and
literature--in a word, of everything connected with the intellectual
and material history of the country. To him we owe an edition of
Firdusi, and many other volumes, which came out at just the right time
to supplement the knowledge already acquired of the country of the
Shah.
Another semi-Asiatic semi-European country was also now becoming known.
This was the mountainous district of the Caucasus. As early as the
second half of the eighteenth century, John Anthony Guldenstædt, a
Russian doctor, had visited Astrakhan, and Kisliar on the Terek, at the
most remote boundary of the Russian possessions, entered Georgia, where
the Czar Heraclius received him with great respect, and penetrated to
Tiflis and the country of the Truchmenes, finally arriving at Imeritia.
The next year, 1773, he visited the great Kabardia, the Oriental
Kumania, examined the ruins of Madjary, visited Tscherkask and Asov,
discovered the mouth of the Don, and was about to extend his researches
to the Crimea when he was recalled to St. Petersburg.
Guldenstædt's travels have not been translated into French. Their
author's career was cut short by death before he had completed their
revision for the press, and they were edited at St. Petersburg by Henry
Julius von Klaproth, a young Prussian, who afterwards explored the same
countries.
Klaproth, who was born at Berlin on the 11th October, 1783, gave proof
at a very early age of a special aptitude for the study of Oriental
languages. At fifteen years old he taught himself Chinese; and he had
scarcely finished his studies at the Universities of Halle and Dresden,
when he began the publication of his "Asiatic Magazine." Invited to
Russia by Count Potoki, he was at once named Professor of Oriental
Languages at the Academy of St. Petersburg.
Klaproth did not belong to the worthy race of book-worms who shut
themselves up in their own studies. He took a wider view of the nature
of true knowledge, feeling that the surest way to attain a thorough
acquaintance with the languages of Asia and of Oriental manners and
customs was to study them on the spot. He therefore asked permission to
accompany the ambassador Golowkin, who was going to China overland; and
the necessary credentials obtained, he started alone for Siberia,
making acquaintance with the Samoyèdes, the Tongouses, Bashkirs,
Yakontes, Kirghizes, and other of the Finnic and Tartar hordes which
frequent these vast steppes, finally arriving at Yakutsk, where he was
soon joined by Golowkin. After a halt at Kiakta, the embassy crossed
the Chinese frontier on the 1st January, 1806.
The Viceroy of Mongolia, however, insisted upon the observance by the
ambassador of certain ceremonies which were considered by the latter
degrading to his dignity; and neither being disposed to yield, Golowkin
set out with his suite to return to St. Petersburg. Klaproth, not
caring to retrace his steps, preferred to visit hordes still unknown to
him, and he therefore crossed the southern districts of Siberia, and
collected during a journey extending over twenty months, a large number
of Chinese, Mandchoorian, Thibetan, and Mongolian books, which were of
service to him in his great work "Asia Polyglotta."
On his return to St. Petersburg he was invested with all the honours of
the Academy; and a little later, at the suggestion of Count Potoki, he
was appointed to the command of an historical, archæological, and
geographical expedition to the Caucasus. Klaproth now passed a whole
year in journeys, often full of peril, amongst thievish tribes, through
rugged districts, and penetrated to the country traversed by
Guldenstædt at the end of the previous century.
Klaproth's description of Tiflis is curious as compared with that of
contemporary authors. "Tiflis," he says, "so called on account of its
mineral springs, is divided into three parts: Tiflis properly so
called, or the ancient town; Kala, or the citadel; and the suburb of
Issni. This town is built on the Kur, and the greater part of its outer
walls is now in ruins. Its streets are so narrow, that 'arbas,' as the
lofty carriages so characteristic of Oriental places are called, could
only pass with difficulty down the widest, whilst in the others a
horseman would barely find room to ride. The houses, badly built of
flints and bricks cemented with mud, never last longer than about
fifteen years." In Klaproth's time Tiflis boasted of two markets, but
everything was extremely dear, shawls and silk scarves manufactured in
the neighbouring Asiatic countries bringing higher prices than in St.
Petersburg.
Tiflis must not be dismissed without a few words concerning its hot
springs. Klaproth tells us that the famous hot baths were formerly
magnificent, but they are falling into ruins, although some few remain;
the floors of which are cased in marble. The waters contain very little
sulphur and are most salutary in their effects. The natives, especially
the women, use them to excess, the latter remaining in them several
days, and even taking their meals in the bath.
The chief food of the people of Tiflis, at least in the mountainous
districts, is the bhouri, a kind of hard bread with a very disagreeable
taste, prepared in a way repugnant to our sybarite notions.
When the dough is sufficiently kneaded a bright clear fire of dry wood
is made, in earthen vessels four feet high by two wide, which are sunk
in the ground. When the fire is burning fiercely, the Georgians shake
into it the vermin by which their shirts and red-silk breeches are
infested. Not until this ceremony has been performed do they throw the
dough, which is divided into pieces of the size of two clenched fists,
into the pots. The dough once in, the vessels are covered with lids,
over which rags are placed, to make sure of all the heat being kept in
and the bread being thoroughly baked. It is, however, always badly
done, and very difficult of digestion.
Having thus assisted at the preparation of the food of the poor
mountaineer, let us join Klaproth at the table of a prince. A long
striped cloth, about a yard and a half wide and very dirty, was spread
for his party; on this was placed for each guest an oval-shaped wheaten
cake, three spans long by two wide, and scarcely as thick as a finger.
A number of little brass bowls, filled with mutton and boiled rice,
roast fowls, and cheese cut in slices, were then brought in. As it was
a fast day, smoked salmon with uncooked green vegetables was served to
the prince and his subjects. Spoons, forks, and knives are unknown in
Georgia; soup is eaten from the bowl, meat is taken in the hands, and
torn with the fingers into pieces the size of a mouthful. To throw a
tid-bit to another guest is a mark of great friendship. The repast
over, grapes and dried fruits are eaten. During the meal a good red
native wine, called traktir by the Tartars, and ghwino by the
Georgians, is very freely circulated. It is drunk from flat silver
bowls greatly resembling saucers.
Klaproth's account of the different incidents of his journey is no less
interesting and vivid than this description of the manners of the
people. Take, for instance, what he says of his trip to the sources of
the Terek, the site of which had been pretty accurately indicated by
Guldenstædt, although he had not visited them.
"I left the village of Utzfars-Kan on the 17th March, on a bright but
cold morning. Fifteen Ossetes accompanied me. After half an hour's
march, we began to climb the steep and rugged ascent leading to the
junction of the Utzfars-Don with the Terek. This was succeeded by a
still worse road, running for a league alongside of the river, which is
scarcely ten paces wide here, although it was then swollen by the
melting of the snow. This part of the river banks is inhabited. We
continued to ascend, and reached the foot of the Khoki, also called
Istir-Khoki, finally arriving at a spot where an accumulation of large
stones in the bed of the river rendered it possible to cross over to
the village of Tsiwratté-Kan, where we breakfasted. Here the small
streams forming the Terek meet. I was so glad to have reached the end
of my journey, that I poured a glass of Hungarian wine into the river,
and made a second libation to the genius of the mountain in which the
Terek rises. The Ossetes, who thought I was performing a religious
ceremony, observed me gravely. On the smooth sides of an enormous block
of schist I engraved in red the date of my journey, together with my
name and those of my companions, after which I climbed up to the
village of Ressi."
[Illustration: "Fifteen Ossetes accompanied me."]
After this account of his journey, from which we might multiply
extracts, Klaproth sums up all the information he has collected on the
tribes of the Caucasus, dwelling specially on the marked resemblances
which exist between the different Georgian dialects and those of the
Finns and Lapps. This was a new and useful suggestion.
Speaking of the Lesghians, who occupy the eastern Caucasus, known as
Daghestan, or Lezghistan, Klaproth says their name is a misnomer, just
as Scythian or Tartar was used to indicate the natives of Northern
Asia; adding, that they do not form one nation, as is proved by the
number of dialects in use, which, however, would seem to have been
derived from a common source, though time has greatly modified them.
This is a contradiction in terms, implying either that the Lesghians,
speaking one language, form one nation, or that forming one nation the
Lesghians speak various dialects derived from the same source.
According to Klaproth, Lesghian words have a considerable affinity with
the other languages of the Caucasus, and with those of Western Asia,
especially the dialects of the Samoyedes and Siberian Finns.
West and north-west of the Lesghians dwell the Metzdjeghis, or
Tchetchentses, who are probably the most ancient inhabitants of the
Caucasus. This is not, however, the opinion of Pallas, who looks upon
them as a separate tribe of the Alain family. The Tchetchentse language
greatly resembles the Samoyede and other Siberian dialects, as well as
those of the Slavs.
The Tcherkesses, or Circassians, are the Sykhes of the Greeks. They
formerly inhabited the eastern Caucasus and the Crimea. Their language
differs much from other Caucasian idioms, although the Tcherkesses
proceed, with the Wogouls and the Ostiakes--we have just seen that the
Lesghian and Tchetchentse dialects resemble the Siberian--from one
common stock, which at some remote date separated into several
branches, of which the Huns probably formed one. The Tcherkesse dialect
is one of the most difficult to pronounce, some of the consonants being
produced in a manner so loud and guttural that no European has yet been
able to acquire it.
In the Caucasus also dwell the Abazes--who have never left the shores
of the Black Sea, where they have been settled from time
immemorial--and the Ossetes, or As, who belong to the Indo-Germanic
stock. They call their country Ironistan, and themselves the Irons.
Klaproth takes them to be Sarmatic Medes, not only on account of their
name, which resembles Iran, but because of the structure of their
language, which proves more satisfactorily than historical documents,
and in a most conclusive manner, that they spring from the same stock
as the Medes and Persians. This opinion, however, appears to us mere
conjecture, as in the time of Klaproth the interpretation of cuneiform
inscriptions had not been accomplished, and too little was known of the
language of the Medes for any one to judge of its resemblance to the
Ossete idiom.
"However," continues Klaproth, "after meeting again the Sarmatic Medes
of the ancients in this people, it is still more surprising also to
recognize the Alains, who occupied the districts north of the
Caucasus."
He adds: "It follows from all we have said, that the Ossetes, who call
themselves Irons, are the Medes, who assumed the name of Irans, and
whom Herodotus styles the Arioi. They are, moreover, the Sarmatic Medes
of the ancients, and belong to the Median colony founded in the
Caucasus by the Scythians. They are the As or Alains of the middle
ages. And lastly, they are the Iasses of Russian chronicles, from whom
some of the Caucasus range took their name of the Iassic Mountains."
This is not the place to discuss identifications belonging to the realm
of criticism. We will content ourselves with adding to these remarks of
Klaproth on the Ossete language, that its pronunciation resembles that
of the Low-German and Slavonic dialects.
The Georgians differ essentially from the neighbouring nations, alike
in their language and in their physical and moral qualities. They are
divided into four principal tribes--the Karthalinians, Mingrelians, and
Shvans (or Swanians), inhabiting the southern range of the Caucasus,
and the Lazes, a wild robber tribe.
As we have seen, the facts collected by Klaproth are very curious, and
throw an unexpected light on the migration of ancient races. The
penetration and sagacity of the traveller were marvellous, and his
memory was extraordinary. The scholar of Berlin rendered signal
services to the science of philology. It is to be regretted that his
qualities as a man, his principles, and his temper, were not on a level
with his knowledge and acumen as a professor.
We must now leave the Old World for the New, and give an account of the
explorations of the young republic of the United States. So soon as the
Federal Government was free from the anxieties of war, and its position
was alike established and recognized, public attention was directed to
the "fur country," which had in turn attracted the English, the
Spanish, and the French. Nootka Sound and the neighbouring coasts,
discovered by the great Cook and the talented Quadra, Vancouver, and
Marchand, were American. Moreover, the Monroe doctrine, destined later
to excite so much discussion, already existed in embryo in the minds of
the statesmen of the day.
In accordance with an Act of Congress, Captain Merryweather Lewis and
Lieutenant William Clarke, were commissioned to trace the Missouri,
from its junction with the Mississippi to its source, and to cross the
Rocky Mountains by the easiest and shortest route, thus opening up
communication between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. The
officers were also to trade with any Indian tribes they might meet.
The expedition was composed of regular troops and volunteers, numbering
altogether, including the leaders, forty-three men; one boat and two
canoes completed the equipment.
On the 14th May, 1804, the Americans left Wood River, which flows into
the Mississippi, and embarked on the Missouri. From what Cass had said
in his journal, the explorers expected to have to contend with natural
dangers of a very formidable description, and also to fight their way
amongst natives of gigantic stature, whose hostility to the white man
was invincible.
During the first days of this long canoe voyage, only to be compared to
those of Orellana and Condamine on the Amazon, the Americans were
fortunate enough to meet with some Sioux Indians, an old Frenchman, a
Canadian -coureur des bois-, or trapper, who spoke the languages of
most of the Missouri tribes, and consented to accompany the expedition
as interpreter.
They passed the mouths of the Osage, Kansas, Platte or Nebraska, and
White River, all tributaries of the Missouri, successively, and met
various parties of Osage and Sioux, or Maha Indians, who all appeared
to be in a state of utter degradation. One tribe of Sioux had suffered
so much from smallpox, that the male survivors, in a fit of rage and
misery, had killed the women and children spared by the terrible
malady, and fled from the infected neighbourhood.
A little farther north dwelt the Ricaris, or Recs, at first supposed to
be the cleanest, most polite, and most industrious of the tribes the
expedition met with; but a few thefts soon modified that favourable
judgment. It is curious that these people do not depend entirely on
hunting, but cultivate corn, peas, and tobacco.
This is not, however, the case with the Mandans, who are a more robust
race. A custom obtains among them, also characteristic of
Polynesia--they do not bury their dead, but expose them on a scaffold.
Clarke's narrative gives us a few details relating to this strange
tribe. The Mandans look upon the Supreme Being only as an embodiment of
the power of healing. As a result they worship two gods, whom they call
the Great Medicine or the Physician, and the Great Spirit. It would
seem that life is so precious to them that they are impelled to worship
all that can prolong it!
Their origin is strange. They originally lived in a large subterranean
village hollowed out under the ground on the borders of a lake. A vine,
however, struck its roots so deeply in the earth as to reach their
habitations, and some of them ascended to the surface by the aid of
this impromptu ladder. The descriptions given by them on their return
of the vast hunting-grounds, rich in game and fruit, which they had
seen, led the rest of the tribe to resolve to reach so favoured a land.
Half of them had gained the surface, when the vine, bending beneath the
weight of a fat woman, gave way, and rendered the ascent of the rest
impossible. After death the Mandans expect to return to their
subterranean home, but only those who die with a clear conscience can
reach it; the guilty will be flung into a lake.
The explorers took up their quarters for the winter amongst the
Mandans, on the 1st of November. They built huts, as comfortable as
possible with the materials at their command; and in spite of the
extreme cold, gave themselves up to the pleasures of hunting, which
soon became a positive necessity of their existence.
When the ice should break up on the Missouri, the explorers hoped to
continue their voyage; but on their sending the boat down to St. Louis,
laden with the skins and furs already obtained, only thirty men were
found willing to carry the expedition through to the end.
The travellers soon passed the mouth of the Yellowstone River, with a
current nearly as strong as that of the Missouri, flowing through
districts abounding in game.
Cruel was their perplexity when they arrived at a fork where the
Missouri divided into two rivers of nearly equal volume, for which was
the main stream? Captain Lewis with a party of scouts ascended the
southern branch, and soon came in sight of the Rocky Mountains,
completely covered with snow. Guided to the spot by a terrific uproar,
he beheld the Missouri fling itself in one broad sheet of water over a
rocky precipice, beyond which it formed a broken series of rapids,
extending for several miles.
[Illustration: "He beheld the Missouri."]
The detachment now followed this branch, which led them into the heart
of the mountains, and for three or four miles dashed along between two
perpendicular walls of rock, finally dividing itself into three parts,
to which were given the names of Jefferson, Madison, and Galatin, after
celebrated American statesmen.
The last heights were soon crossed, and then the expedition descended
the slopes overlooking the Pacific. The Americans had brought with them
a Soshone woman, who had been protected as a girl by the Indians of the
east, and not only did she serve the explorers faithfully as an
interpreter, but also, through her recognition of a brother in the
chief of a tribe disposed to be hostile, she from that moment secured
cordial treatment for the white men. Unfortunately the country was
poor, the people living entirely on wild berries, bark, and the little
game they were able to obtain.
The Americans, little accustomed to this frugal fare, had to eke it out
by eating their horses, which had grown very thin, and buying all the
dogs the natives would consent to sell. Hence they obtained the
nickname of Dog-eaters.
As the temperature became milder, so did the character of the natives,
whilst food grew more abundant; and as they came down the Oregon, also
known as the Columbia, the salmon formed a seasonable addition to the
bill of fare. When the Columbia, which is dangerous for navigation,
approaches the sea, it forms a vast estuary, where the waves from the
offing meet the current of the river. The Americans more than once
incurred considerable risk of being swallowed up, with their frail
canoe, before they reached the shores of the ocean.
Glad to have accomplished the aim of their expedition, the explorers
wintered at the mouth of the river, and when the fine weather set in
they made their way back to St. Louis, arriving there in May, 1806,
after an absence of two years, four months, and ten days. They had in
that time, according to their own estimate, traversed less than 1378
leagues.
The impulse was now given, and reconnoitring expeditions in the
interior of the new continent rapidly succeeded each other, assuming, a
little later, a scientific character which gives them a position of
their own in the history of discovery.
A few years later, one of the greatest colonizers of whom England can
boast, Sir Stamford Raffles, organizer of the expedition which took
possession of the Dutch colonies, was appointed Military Governor of
Java. During an administration extending over five years, Raffles
brought about numerous reforms, and abolished slavery. Absorbing as was
this work, however, it did not prevent him from publishing two huge
quarto volumes, which are as interesting as they are curious. They
contain, in addition to the history of Java, a vast number of details
about the natives of the interior, until then little known, together
with much circumstantial information respecting the geology and natural
history of the country. It is no wonder, therefore, that in honour of
the man who did so much to make Java known, the name of Rafflesia
should have been given to an immense flower native to it, and of which
some specimens measure over three feet in diameter, and weigh some ten
pounds.
[Illustration: Warrior of Java. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
Raffles was also the first to penetrate to the interior of Sumatra, of
which the coast only was previously known. He visited the districts
occupied by the Passoumahs, sturdy tillers of the soil, the northern
provinces, with Memang-Kabou, the celebrated Malayan capital, and
crossed the southern half of the island, from Bencoulen to Palimbang.
Sir Stamford Raffles' fame, however rests principally upon his having
drawn the attention of the Indian Government to the exceptionally
favourable position of Singapore, which was converted by him into an
open port, and grew rapidly into a prosperous settlement.
CHAPTER II.
THE EXPLORATION AND COLONIZATION OF AFRICA.
I.
Peddie and Campbell in the Soudan--Ritchie and Lyon in Fezzan--Denham,
Oudney, and Clapperton in Fezzan, and in the Tibboo country--Lake Tchad
and its tributaries--Kouka and the chief villages of Bornou--Mandara--A
razzia, or raid, in the Fellatah country--Defeat of the Arabs and death
of Boo-Khaloum--Loggan--Death of Toole--En route for Kano--Death of
Oudney--Kano--Sackatoo--Sultan Bello--Return to Europe.
The power of Napoleon, and with it the supremacy of France, was
scarcely overthrown--the Titanic contests, to gratify the ambition of
one man at the expense of the intellectual progress of humanity, were
scarcely at an end, before an honourable rivalry awoke once more, and
new scientific and commercial expeditions were set on foot. A new era
had commenced.
Foremost in the ranks of the governments which organized and encouraged
exploring expeditions we find as usual that of England. It was in
Central Africa, the vast riches of which had been hinted at in the
accounts given of their travels by Hornemann and Burckhardt, that the
attention of the English was now concentrated.
As early as 1816 Major Peddie, starting from Senegal, reached Kakondy,
on the River Nuñez, succumbing, however, to the fatigue of the journey
and unhealthiness of the climate soon after his arrival in that town.
Major Campbell succeeded him in the command of the expedition, and
crossed the lofty mountains of Foota-Djalion, losing in a few days
several men and part of the baggage animals.
Arrived at the headquarters of the Almamy, as most of the kings of this
part of Africa are called, the expedition was detained for a long time,
and only obtained permission to depart on payment of a large sum.
Most disastrous was the return journey, for the explorers had not only
to recross the streams they had before forded with such difficulty, but
they were subjected to so many insults, annoyances, and exactions, that
to put an end to them Campbell was obliged to burn his merchandize,
break his guns, and sink his powder.
Against so much fatigue and mortification, added to the complete
failure of his expedition, Major Campbell failed to bear up, and he
died, with several of his officers, in the very place where Major
Peddie had closed his career. The few survivors of the party reached
Sierra Leone after an arduous march.
A little later, Ritchie and Captain George Francis Lyon, availing
themselves of the prestige which the siege of Algiers had brought to
the British flag, and of the cordial relations which the English consul
at Tripoli had succeeded in establishing with the principal Moorish
authorities, determined to follow Hornemann's route, and penetrate to
the very heart of Africa.
On the 25th March, 1819, the travellers left Tripoli with Mahommed el
Moukni, Bey of Fezzan, who is called sultan by his subjects. Protected
by this escort, Ritchie and Lyon reached Murzuk without molestation,
but there the former died on the 2nd November, worn out by the fatigue
and privations of the journey across the desert. Lyon, who was ill for
some time from the same causes, recovered soon enough to foil the
designs of the sultan, who counting on his death, had already begun to
take possession of his property, and also of Ritchie's. The captain
could not penetrate beyond the southern boundaries of Fezzan, but he
had time to collect a good deal of valuable information about the chief
towns of that province and the language of its inhabitants. To him we
likewise owe the first authentic details of the religion, customs,
language, and extraordinary costumes of the Tuarick Arabs, a wild tribe
inhabiting the Great Sahara desert.
Captain Lyon's narrative also contains a good deal of interesting
information collected by himself on Bornou, Wadai, and the Soudan,
although he was unable to visit those places in person.
The results obtained did not by any means satisfy the English
Government, which was most eager to open up the riches of the interior
to its merchants. Consequently the authorities received favourably the
proposals made by Dr. Walter Oudney, a Scotchman, whose enthusiasm had
been aroused by the travels of Mungo Park. This Dr. Oudney was a friend
of Hugh Clapperton, a lieutenant in the Navy, three years his senior,
who had distinguished himself in Canada and elsewhere, but had been
thrown out of employment and reduced to half-pay by the peace of 1815.
Hearing of Oudney's scheme, Clapperton at once determined to join him
in it, and Oudney begged the minister to allow him the aid of that
enterprising officer, whose special knowledge would be of great
assistance. Lord Bathurst made no objection, and the two friends, after
receiving minute instructions, embarked for Tripoli, where they
ascertained that Major Denham was to take the command of their
expedition.
Denham was born in London on the 31st December, 1783, and began life as
an articled pupil to a country lawyer. As an attorney's clerk he found
his duties so irksome and so little suited to his daring spirit that
his longing for adventure soon led him to enlist in a regiment bound
for Spain. Until 1815 he remained with the army, but after the peace he
employed his leisure in visiting France and Italy.
Denham, eager to obtain distinction, had chosen the career which would
best enable him to achieve it, even at the risk of his life, and he now
resolved to become an explorer. With him to think was to act. He had
asked the minister to commission him to go to Timbuctoo by the route
Laing afterwards took when he heard of the expedition under Clapperton
and Oudney; and he now begged to be allowed to join them.
Without any delay Denham obtained the necessary equipment, and
accompanied by a carpenter named William Hillman, he embarked for
Malta, joining his future travelling companions at Tripoli on the 21st
November, 1821. The English at this time enjoyed very great prestige,
not only in the States of Barbary, on account of the bombardment of
Algiers, but also because the British consul at Tripoli had by his
clever diplomacy established friendly relations with the government to
which he was accredited.
This prestige extended beyond the narrow range of the northern states.
The nationality of certain travellers, the protection accorded by
England to the Porte, the British victories in India had all been
vaguely rumoured even in the heart of Africa, and the name of
Englishman, was familiar without any particular meaning being attached
to it. According to the English consul, the route from Tripoli to
Bornou was as safe as that from London to Edinburgh. This was,
therefore, the moment to seize opportunities which might not occur
again.
The three travellers, after a cordial reception from the bey, who
placed all his resources at their disposal, lost no time in leaving
Tripoli, and with an escort provided by the Moorish governor, they
reached Murzuk, the capital of Fezzan, on the 8th April, 1822, without
difficulty, having indeed been received with great enthusiasm in some
of the places through which they passed.
At Sockna, Denham tells us, the governor came out to meet them,
accompanied by the principal inhabitants and hundreds of the country
people, who crowded round their horses, kissing their hands with every
appearance of cordiality and delight, and shouting -Inglesi-,
-Inglesi-, as the visitors entered the town. This welcome was the more
gratifying from the fact that the travellers were the first Europeans
to penetrate into Africa without wearing a disguise. Denham adds that
he feels sure their reception would have been far less cordial had they
stooped to play the part of impostors by attempting to pass for
Mahommedans.
At Murzuk they were harassed by annoyances similar to those which had
paralyzed Hornemann; in their case, however, circumstances and
character were alike different, and without allowing themselves to be
blinded by the compliments paid them by the sultan, the English, who
were thoroughly in earnest, demanded the necessary escort for the
journey to Bornou.
It was impossible, they were told, to start before the following
spring, on account of the difficulty of collecting a kafila or caravan,
and the troops necessary for its escort across the desert.
A rich merchant, however, Boo-Bucker-Boo-Khaloum by name, a great
friend of the pacha, gave the explorers a hint that if he received
certain presents he would smooth away all difficulties. He even offered
to escort them himself to Bornou, for which province he was bound if he
could obtain the necessary permission from the Pacha of Tripoli.
Denham, believing Boo-Khaloum to be acting honestly, went off to
Tripoli to obtain the governor's sanction, but on his arrival there he
obtained only evasive answers, and finally threatened to embark for
England, where he said he would report the obstacles thrown in his way
by the pacha, in the carrying out of the objects of the exploring
expedition.
These menaces produced no effect, and Denham actually set sail, and was
about to land at Marseilles when he received a satisfactory message
from the bey, begging him to return, and authorizing Boo-Khaloum to
accompany him and his companions.
On the 30th October Denham rejoined Oudney and Clapperton at Murzuk,
finding them considerably weakened by fever and the effects of the
climate.
Denham, convinced that change of air would restore them to health,
persuaded them to start and begin the journey by easy stages. He
himself set out on the 20th of November with a caravan of merchants
from Mesurata, Tripoli, Sockna, and Murzuk, escorted by 210 Arab
warriors chosen from the most intelligent and docile of the tribes, and
commanded by Boo-Khaloum.
The expedition took the route followed by Lyon and soon reached
Tegerry, which is the most southerly town of Fezzan, and the last
before the traveller enters the desert of Bilma.
Denham made a sketch of the castle of Tegerry from the southern bank of
a salt lake near the town. Tegerry is entered by a low narrow vaulted
passage leading to a gate in a second rampart. The wall is pierced with
apertures which render the entrance by the narrow passage very
difficult. Above the second gate there is also an aperture through
which darts, and fire-brands may be hurled upon the besiegers, a mode
of warfare once largely indulged in by the Arabs. Inside the town there
are wells of fairly good water. Denham is of opinion that Tegerry
restored, well-garrisoned and provisioned, could sustain a long siege.
Its situation is delightful. It is surrounded by date-trees, and the
water in the neighbourhood is excellent. A chain of low hills stretches
away to the east. Snipes, ducks, and wild geese frequent the salt lakes
near the town.
Leaving Tegerry, the travellers entered a sandy desert, across which it
would not have been easy to find the way, had it not been marked out by
the skeletons of men and animals strewn along it, especially about the
wells.
"One of the skeletons we saw to-day," says Denham, "still looked quite
fresh. The beard was on the chin, the features could be recognized. 'It
is my slave,' exclaimed one of the merchants of the kafila. 'I left him
near here four months ago.' 'Make haste and take him to the market!'
cried a facetious slave merchant, 'lest some one else should claim
him.'"
[Illustration: A kafila of slaves. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
Here and there in the desert are oases containing towns of greater or
less importance, at which the caravans halt. Kishi is one of the most
frequented of these places, and there the money for the right of
crossing the desert is paid. The Sultan of Kishi, the ruler of a good
many of these petty principalities, and who takes the title of
Commander of the Faithful, was remarkable for a complete disregard of
cleanliness, a peculiarity in which, according to Denham, his court
fully equalled him.
This sultan paid Boo-Khaloum a visit in his tent, accompanied by half a
dozen Tibboos, some of whom were positively hideous. Their teeth were
of a dark yellow colour, the result of chewing tobacco, of which they
are so fond that they use it as snuff as well as to chew. Their noses
looked like little round bits of flesh stuck on to their faces with
nostrils so wide that they could push their fingers right up them.
Denham's watch, compass, and musical snuffbox astonished them not a
little. He defines these people as brutes with human faces.
A little further on the travellers reached the town of Kirby, situated
in a wâdy near a low range of hills of which the highest are not more
than 400 feet above the sea level, and between two salt lakes, produced
by the excavations made for building. From the centre of these lakes
rise islets consisting of masses of muriate and carbonate of soda. The
salt produced by these wâdys, or depressions of the soil, form an
important article of commerce with Bornou and the whole of the Soudan.
It would be impossible to imagine a more wretched place than Kirby. Its
houses are empty, containing not so much as a mat. How could it be
otherwise with a place liable to incessant raids from the Tuaricks?
The caravan now crossed the Tibboo country, inhabited by a peaceful,
hospitable people to whom, as keepers of the wells and reservoirs of
the desert, the leaders of caravans pay passage-money. The Tibboos are
a strong, active race, and when mounted on their nimble steeds they
display marvellous skill in throwing the lance, which the most vigorous
of their warriors can hurl to a distance of 145 yards. Bilma is their
chief city, and the residence of their sultan.
On the arrival of the travellers at Bilma, the sultan, escorted by a
number of men and women, came out to meet the strangers. The women were
much better-looking than those in the smaller towns; some of them had
indeed very pleasant faces, their white, regular teeth contrasting
admirably with their shining black skins, and the three "triangular
flaps of hair, streaming with oil." Coral ornaments in their noses, and
large amber necklaces round their throats, gave them what Denham calls
a "seductive appearance." Some of them carried fans made of grass or
hair, with which to keep off the flies; others were provided with
branches of trees; all, in fact, carried something in their hands,
which they waved above their heads. Their costume consisted of a loose
piece of Soudan cloth, fastened on the left shoulder, and leaving the
right uncovered, with a smaller piece wound about the head, and falling
on the shoulders or flung back. In spite of this paucity of clothing,
there was not the least immodesty in their bearing.
A mile from Bilma, and beyond a limpid spring, which appears to have
been placed there by nature to afford a supply of water to travellers,
lies a desert, which it takes no less than ten days to cross. This was
probably once a huge salt lake.
On the 4th February, 1823, the caravan reached Lari, a town on the
northern boundary of Bornou, in lat. 14 degrees 40 minutes N. The
inhabitants, astonished at the size of the "kafila," fled in terror at
its approach.
"Beyond, however," says Denham, "was an object full of interest to us,
and the sight of it produced a sensation so gratifying and inspiring,
that it would be difficult for language to convey an idea of its force
or pleasure. The great Lake Tchad, glowing with the golden rays of the
sun in its strength, appeared to be within a mile of the spot on which
we stood."
On leaving Lari, the appearance of the country changed completely. The
sandy desert was succeeded by a clay soil, clothed with grass and
dotted with acacias and other trees of various species, amongst which
grazed herds of antelopes, whilst Guinea fowls and the turtle-doves of
Barbary flew hither and thither above them. Towns took the place of
villages, with huts of the shape of bells, thatched with durra straw.
The travellers continued their journey southwards, rounding Lake Tchad,
which they had first touched at its most northerly point.
The districts bordering on this sheet of water were of a black, firm,
but muddy soil. The waters rise to a considerable height in winter, and
sink in proportion in the summer. The lake is of fresh water, rich in
fish, and frequented by hippopotami and aquatic birds. Near its centre,
on the south-east, are the islands inhabited by the Biddomahs, a race
who live by pillaging the people of the mainland.
.
1
.
2
,
.
3
.
4
.
,
5
.
6
,
7
.
,
8
,
9
.
"
10
11
.
12
13
,
14
,
,
,
15
.
16
17
,
18
,
,
,
,
,
19
;
20
21
.
22
23
24
,
25
.
26
27
'
,
,
28
,
.
29
30
[
:
.
(
-
.
)
]
31
32
.
33
,
34
.
-
-
35
-
,
36
.
,
37
,
,
38
,
39
-
,
.
40
41
,
42
-
.
43
,
44
,
.
45
!
46
,
47
,
48
,
49
.
50
51
.
52
-
,
53
!
54
!
55
56
.
,
57
'
,
58
,
.
,
59
,
,
60
,
,
61
.
62
63
,
,
64
,
;
,
,
65
.
66
67
,
"
,
"
68
69
,
70
71
.
72
.
73
.
,
74
.
.
75
,
,
76
,
77
.
,
78
,
.
79
,
.
80
,
81
,
82
-
.
-
,
83
.
84
,
.
85
86
,
,
,
87
,
88
,
,
89
.
90
91
,
92
,
-
,
93
.
94
95
,
96
.
97
,
98
,
,
99
.
100
,
101
,
.
102
.
103
,
,
104
,
105
.
,
106
,
.
107
,
108
,
.
109
110
.
111
,
,
-
;
112
,
;
113
,
114
.
115
116
-
117
,
118
,
,
119
.
"
,
"
;
"
120
,
121
.
122
,
,
123
.
124
,
,
,
125
.
,
126
.
"
127
128
,
129
,
130
.
131
;
,
,
132
.
133
134
"
,
"
,
"
.
135
,
,
,
136
;
137
.
.
,
138
,
;
;
139
.
,
140
.
141
,
142
,
.
143
.
;
144
,
145
.
;
146
,
;
,
.
147
.
;
148
.
"
149
150
[
:
"
.
"
]
151
152
153
,
154
.
,
155
-
,
,
156
.
,
157
.
158
,
,
159
.
'
160
!
161
162
,
.
'
163
,
'
164
,
.
165
166
,
,
167
,
,
.
168
,
,
169
,
.
170
,
171
.
,
172
-
.
173
.
174
175
;
:
-
-
176
?
177
?
?
,
178
,
179
,
180
.
181
,
,
.
182
183
.
184
185
,
186
.
-
187
.
188
189
190
.
,
191
,
192
-
"
,
"
193
.
194
,
.
195
196
,
197
.
198
,
199
,
200
,
.
201
202
,
203
,
204
205
.
206
207
,
,
,
208
,
,
209
,
,
,
210
-
211
.
,
212
.
213
,
;
214
,
-
.
215
216
,
217
,
218
.
,
,
,
219
,
220
;
,
221
,
,
222
.
223
224
,
,
225
,
226
,
,
,
227
.
228
229
,
,
'
,
230
,
"
,
231
,
'
,
,
232
'
'
,
233
,
,
234
'
.
"
235
,
236
.
237
238
,
239
,
,
240
.
241
242
.
243
,
244
245
,
246
,
,
247
,
248
,
.
249
250
251
,
.
,
252
,
253
,
,
,
254
,
,
255
,
,
256
,
,
,
,
257
,
,
,
,
.
258
259
260
,
261
,
262
,
263
.
264
265
,
266
,
;
267
268
.
269
,
270
,
,
271
;
272
,
273
274
.
275
276
,
,
277
'
,
278
'
,
279
.
280
,
281
;
,
,
282
'
-
;
283
,
284
285
.
286
287
288
,
289
.
290
291
.
,
,
292
293
.
,
,
294
,
,
,
,
295
-
-
,
296
.
297
,
,
298
299
.
300
301
-
-
.
302
.
303
,
,
304
,
,
,
305
,
,
306
,
307
,
.
308
,
,
,
309
,
,
,
310
,
311
.
.
312
313
'
.
314
'
315
,
.
316
,
,
317
.
318
319
,
,
,
320
321
.
;
322
,
323
"
.
"
324
,
325
.
.
326
327
-
328
.
329
,
330
331
.
332
,
;
333
,
,
334
,
,
,
335
,
,
336
,
,
337
.
,
338
,
.
339
340
,
,
341
342
;
,
343
.
.
,
344
,
345
,
,
346
,
347
,
,
,
,
348
"
.
"
349
350
.
351
;
,
,
352
,
,
353
.
354
,
,
,
355
,
356
.
357
358
'
359
.
"
,
"
,
"
360
,
:
361
,
;
,
;
362
.
,
363
.
,
'
,
'
364
,
365
,
366
.
,
367
,
368
.
"
'
,
369
,
370
.
371
.
372
373
374
.
375
,
,
;
376
.
377
.
,
378
,
,
379
,
.
380
381
,
382
,
,
383
,
.
384
385
386
,
,
387
.
,
388
-
389
.
390
,
,
391
.
,
,
392
,
393
.
,
,
394
,
.
395
396
397
,
.
398
,
,
399
;
-
400
,
,
.
401
,
,
402
,
,
.
403
,
404
.
,
,
405
;
,
,
406
.
407
-
.
408
,
.
409
,
,
410
,
.
411
.
412
413
'
414
415
.
,
,
416
,
417
,
.
418
419
"
-
,
420
.
.
'
421
,
422
-
.
423
,
,
424
,
425
.
.
426
,
,
427
-
,
428
429
-
,
.
430
.
431
,
,
432
433
.
,
434
,
.
435
,
436
,
437
.
"
438
439
[
:
"
.
"
]
440
441
,
442
,
443
,
444
445
.
.
446
447
,
,
448
,
,
,
449
450
;
,
,
451
,
,
,
452
,
.
453
,
,
454
,
,
455
.
456
457
,
458
,
,
459
.
460
461
-
,
462
,
463
.
,
,
,
464
.
465
,
466
.
467
468
,
,
.
469
.
470
,
471
,
-
-
472
-
-
473
,
474
,
.
475
,
476
477
.
478
479
-
-
480
,
481
-
-
,
,
-
482
.
,
.
483
,
484
,
,
485
,
,
486
,
487
.
,
,
488
,
489
,
490
491
.
492
493
"
,
"
,
"
494
,
495
,
496
.
"
497
498
:
"
,
,
499
,
,
,
500
.
,
,
501
,
502
.
503
.
,
,
504
.
"
505
506
.
507
,
508
-
.
509
510
,
511
.
512
-
-
,
,
513
(
)
,
,
514
,
.
515
516
,
,
517
.
518
,
519
.
520
.
521
,
,
,
522
.
523
524
,
525
.
526
,
527
,
528
"
,
"
,
529
,
.
,
530
,
,
531
,
.
,
,
532
,
533
.
534
535
,
536
,
,
537
,
538
,
539
.
540
.
541
542
,
543
,
,
-
;
544
.
545
546
,
,
,
547
,
.
548
,
549
,
550
,
551
.
552
553
,
554
,
555
,
,
556
-
-
,
,
557
,
558
.
559
560
,
,
,
561
,
,
,
562
,
,
563
.
564
,
,
565
,
566
,
.
567
568
,
,
569
,
,
570
;
571
.
572
,
,
,
.
573
574
,
,
,
575
.
,
576
-
-
,
.
577
578
'
579
.
580
.
,
581
,
.
582
583
!
584
585
.
586
.
,
587
,
588
,
589
.
590
-
,
,
591
,
.
592
,
,
593
,
,
594
.
595
,
596
;
.
597
598
599
,
.
,
600
;
601
,
,
602
.
603
604
,
605
;
.
,
606
,
607
.
608
609
,
610
,
611
.
612
613
614
,
615
?
616
,
,
617
.
,
618
619
,
,
620
.
621
622
[
:
"
.
"
]
623
624
,
625
,
626
,
,
627
,
,
,
628
.
629
630
,
631
.
632
,
633
,
634
,
,
635
,
636
.
637
,
,
,
638
.
639
640
,
,
641
,
,
642
.
643
-
.
644
645
,
,
646
;
,
647
,
648
.
,
,
649
,
,
650
.
651
,
652
,
.
653
654
,
655
,
656
.
,
,
,
657
,
,
.
658
,
,
659
.
660
661
,
662
,
,
663
,
664
.
665
666
,
667
,
,
668
,
669
.
,
670
,
.
671
,
,
672
,
.
673
,
,
674
,
,
675
676
.
,
,
677
,
678
,
679
,
680
.
681
682
[
:
.
(
-
.
)
]
683
684
,
685
.
686
,
,
687
,
-
,
,
688
,
.
689
690
'
,
691
692
,
693
,
.
694
695
696
697
698
.
699
.
700
701
.
702
-
-
-
-
,
703
,
,
-
-
704
-
-
-
-
-
-
705
,
,
-
-
706
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
707
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
.
708
709
710
,
,
711
-
-
,
712
,
713
,
,
714
.
715
.
716
717
718
.
719
,
720
,
721
.
722
723
,
,
,
724
,
,
,
725
.
726
,
727
-
,
728
.
729
730
,
731
,
,
732
.
733
734
,
735
,
736
,
,
,
737
,
738
,
.
739
740
,
741
,
,
742
,
,
743
.
744
.
745
746
,
,
747
748
,
749
750
,
'
,
751
.
752
753
,
,
754
,
,
.
755
,
,
756
,
757
.
,
758
,
759
,
,
760
,
'
.
761
,
762
763
.
764
,
,
765
,
,
766
.
767
768
'
769
,
,
,
770
.
771
772
773
,
774
.
775
.
,
,
776
.
.
777
,
,
,
778
,
779
-
.
780
781
'
,
782
,
783
,
784
.
,
,
785
,
,
786
787
.
788
789
,
,
790
.
'
791
792
793
.
,
794
.
795
796
,
,
797
,
,
798
.
.
799
800
801
;
.
802
803
,
804
,
805
,
806
,
.
,
807
,
808
,
809
810
.
811
812
.
813
,
814
,
815
,
816
,
817
.
,
818
.
,
819
,
820
.
821
822
,
,
823
,
824
,
,
825
,
,
,
,
826
,
827
.
828
829
,
,
,
830
831
,
,
832
,
-
-
,
833
-
-
,
.
834
835
.
836
837
838
.
839
840
841
;
,
,
842
,
843
,
,
844
,
845
.
846
847
,
,
848
,
,
849
.
850
851
,
,
-
-
-
,
852
,
853
.
854
,
855
.
856
857
,
-
,
858
'
,
859
,
860
,
861
,
862
.
863
864
,
,
865
866
,
,
-
867
.
868
869
,
870
871
.
872
873
,
,
874
.
875
876
,
,
,
,
877
,
878
-
.
879
880
881
,
,
882
.
883
884
885
.
886
.
887
888
.
889
,
-
,
890
.
891
.
892
,
-
,
.
893
.
-
,
894
.
895
.
,
,
896
.
897
898
,
,
899
,
900
,
901
.
902
903
"
-
,
"
,
"
904
.
,
.
'
905
,
'
.
'
906
.
'
'
!
'
907
,
'
908
.
'
"
909
910
[
:
.
(
-
.
)
]
911
912
913
,
.
914
,
915
.
,
916
,
917
,
918
,
,
,
919
.
920
921
-
,
922
,
.
923
,
,
924
.
925
926
.
927
'
,
,
928
.
.
929
930
,
931
932
,
,
933
.
934
.
935
,
,
936
.
937
938
.
939
,
.
940
?
941
942
,
,
943
,
944
,
-
.
945
,
,
946
,
947
.
948
,
.
949
950
,
,
951
,
.
952
-
;
953
,
,
954
,
"
955
,
.
"
,
956
,
957
"
.
"
958
,
;
959
;
,
,
,
960
.
961
,
,
962
,
,
963
.
,
964
.
965
966
,
,
967
,
968
,
.
969
.
970
971
,
,
,
972
,
.
.
973
,
"
,
"
974
.
975
976
"
,
,
"
,
"
,
977
,
978
979
.
,
980
,
981
.
"
982
983
,
.
984
,
985
,
986
,
-
987
.
988
,
,
.
989
990
,
,
991
.
992
993
,
,
994
.
,
995
.
,
996
,
.
,
997
-
,
,
998
.
999
1000