the Arabs and the Wahabees. At Medina, as at Mecca, the pilgrim's first
duty is to visit the tomb and mosque of Mahomet; but the ceremonies
attending the visit are much easier and shorter, and the traveller
performed them in a quarter of an hour.
Burckhardt's stay at Mecca had already been prejudicial to him. At
Medina he was attacked by intermittent fever, which increased in
violence, and was accompanied by violent sickness. This soon so reduced
him, that he could no longer rise from his carpet without the
assistance of his slave, "a poor fellow who by nature and habit was
more fit to tend camels than to take care of his worn-out and enfeebled
master."
Burckhardt being detained at Medina for more than three months by a
fever, due to bad climate, the detestable quality of the water, and the
prevalence of infectious illnesses, was forced to relinquish his
project of crossing the desert to Akabah, in order to reach Yanibo as
quickly as possible, and from thence embark for Egypt.
"Next to Aleppo," he says, "Medina is the best-built town I have seen
in the East. It is entirely of stone, the houses being generally three
stories high, with flat tops. As they are not whitewashed, and the
stone is brown in colour, the streets, which are very narrow, have
usually a sombre appearance. They are often only two or three paces
wide. At the present time Medina looks desolate enough; the houses are
falling into ruins. Their owners, who formerly derived a considerable
profit from the inroad of pilgrims, find their revenues diminishing, as
the Wahabees forbid visitors to the tomb of the prophet, alleging that
he was but a mere mortal. The possession which places Medina on a par
with Mecca is the Grand Mosque, containing the tomb of Mahomet. This is
smaller than that at Mecca, but is built upon the same plan, in a large
square courtyard, surrounded on all sides by covered galleries, and
having a small building in the centre. The famous tomb, surrounded by
an iron railing painted green, is near the eastern corner. It is of
good workmanship, in imitation of filagree, and interlaced with
inscriptions in copper. Four doors, of which three lead into this
enclosure, are kept constantly shut. Permission to enter is freely
accorded to persons of rank, and others can purchase permission of the
principal eunuchs for about fifteen piasters. In the interior are
hangings which surround the tomb, and are only a few feet from it."
According to the historian of Medina, these hangings cover a square
edifice, built of black stones, and supported upon two columns, in the
interior of which are the sepulchres of Mahomet and his two eldest
disciples, Abou-Bekr and Omar. He also states that these sepulchres are
deep holes, and that the coffin which contains the ashes of Mahomet is
covered with silver, and surmounted by a marble slab with the
inscription, "In the name of God, give him thy pity." The fables which
were spread throughout Europe as to the tomb of the prophet being
suspended in mid air, are unknown in the Hedjaz. The mosque was robbed
of a great part of its treasures by the Wahabees, but there is some
ground for believing that they had been forestalled by the successive
guardians of the tomb.
Many other interesting details of Medina, and its inhabitants,
surroundings, and the haunts of pilgrims, are to be found in
Burckhardt's narrative. But we have given sufficient extracts to induce
the reader who desires further information respecting the manners and
customs of the Arabs, which have not changed, to refer to the book
itself.
Upon the 21st of April, 1815, Burckhardt joined a caravan which
conducted him to Yembo, where the plague was raging. The traveller at
once fell ill and became so weak that it was impossible for him to
resort to a country place. To embark was equally impossible; all the
vessels which were ready to start were crowded with soldiers. He was
compelled to remain eighteen days in the unhealthy little town, before
he could obtain a passage in a small vessel which took him to Cosseir,
and thence to Egypt.
Upon his return to Cairo Burckhardt heard of his father's death. The
traveller's constitution had been sorely tried by illness, and he was
unable to attempt the ascent of Mount Sinai until 1816. The study of
natural history, the publication of his diary, and his correspondence,
occupied him until 1817, at which time he expected to go with a caravan
to Fezzan. Unfortunately he succumbed to a sudden attack of fever, his
last words being, "Write and tell my mother that my last thought was of
her."
Burckhardt was an accomplished traveller; well-informed, exact to
minuteness, patient, courageous, and endowed with an upright and
energetic character. His writings are of great value; the narrative of
his voyage in Arabia--of which he unfortunately could not explore the
interior--is so complete and precise, that owing to it that country was
then better known than many in Europe.
In writing to his father from Cairo on the 13th of March, 1817, he
says, "I have never said a word about what I have seen and met with
that my conscience did not entirely justify; I did not expose myself to
so much danger in order to write a romance!"
The explorers who have succeeded him in the same countries unanimously
testify to his exactness, and agree in praising his fidelity,
knowledge, and sagacity.
"Few travellers," says the -Revue Germanique-, "have enjoyed in a like
degree the faculty of observation. That is a rare gift of nature, like
all eminent qualities. He possessed a sort of intuition which discerned
the truth, apart from his own observations, and thus information given
by him from hearsay has a value that seldom attaches to statements of
that nature. His mind, early ripened by reflection and study (he was
but in his thirty-third year at the time of his death), invariably went
straight to the point. His narrative, always sober, is filled--one may
say--rather with things than words; yet his narratives possess infinite
charm; one admires the man in them as much as the savant and observer."
While the Biblical countries occupied the attention of Seetzen and
Burckhardt, India, the birthplace of most of the European languages,
was about to command the attention of students of language, literature,
and religion, as well as of geography. For the present our concern is
with those problems of physical geography, which the conquests and
studies of the India Company were about to solve by degrees.
In a preceding volume we have related how the Portuguese rule was
established in India. The union of Portugal with Spain, in 1599, led to
the fall of the Portuguese colonies, which came into the possession of
the English and Dutch. England soon afterwards granted a monopoly of
the commerce of India to a Company which was destined to play an
important part in history.
At this time Akbar, the great Mogul emperor, the seventh descendant of
Timour Leng, had established a vast empire in Hindustan and Bengal,
upon the ruins of the Rajpoot kingdoms. Owing to the personal qualities
of Akbar, which had gained for him the surname of the Benefactor of
Man, that empire was at the height of its glory. The same brilliant
course was pursued by Shah Jehan; but Akbar's grandson, Aurung Zeb,
inspired by an insatiable ambition, assassinated his brothers,
imprisoned his father, and seized the reins of government. While the
Mogul Empire was in the enjoyment of profound peace, a clever
adventurer laid the foundations of the Mahratta Empire. The religious
intolerance of Aurung Zeb, and his crafty policy, led to the
insurrection of the Rajpoots, and a struggle, which by draining the
resources of the empire, shook his power. The death of the great
usurper was followed by the decadence of the empire.
Up to this period the India Company had been unable to add to the
narrow strip of territory which they possessed at the ports, but it was
now to benefit by the conflict between the nabobs and rajahs of
Hindustan. It was not, however, until after the taking of Madras, in
1746, by La Bourdonnais, and the struggle against Dupleix, that the
influence and dominion of the English Company was materially increased.
The crafty policy of Clive and Hastings, the English Governors, who
successively employed force, stratagem, and bribery, to attain their
ends, laid the foundation of British greatness in India, and, at the
close of the last century, the Company were possessors of an immense
extent of country, with no less than sixty millions of inhabitants.
Their territory included Bengal, Behar, the provinces of Benares,
Madras, and the Sircars. Tippoo Saib alone, the Sultan of Mysore,
struggled against the English encroachments, but he was unable to hold
out against the coalition formed against him by the skill of Colonel
Wellesley. When rid of their formidable enemies, the Company overcame
such opposition as remained by pensions; and, under the pretext of
protection, imposed upon the rajahs an English garrison which was
maintained at their expense.
One would imagine from all this that the English rule was detested; but
that is not the case. The Company, recognizing the rights of
individuals, did not attempt to change the religion, laws, or customs
of their subjects. Neither is it surprising that travellers, even when
they ventured into districts which, properly speaking, did not belong
to Great Britain, incurred but little danger. In fact, so soon as the
East India Company was free from political embarrassments, it
encouraged explorers throughout its vast domains. At the same time
travellers were despatched to the neighbouring territories to collect
observations, and we propose rapidly to review those expeditions.
[Illustration: Map of English India and part of Persia. Gravé par E.
Morieu.]
One of the first and most curious was that of Webb to the sources of
the Ganges, a river concerning which uncertain and contradictory
opinions prevailed. The Government of Bengal, recognizing the great
importance of the Ganges in the interests of commerce, organized an
expedition, of which Messrs. Webb, Roper, and Hearsay, formed part.
They were to be accompanied by Sepoys, native servants, and
interpreters.
The expedition reached Herdouar, a small village on the left of the
river, upon the 1st of April, 1808. The situation of this village, at
the entrance of the fertile plains of Hindustan, had caused it to be
much frequented by pilgrims, and it was at this spot that purifications
in the waters of the holy river took place during the hot season.
As every pilgrimage implies the sale of relics, Herdouar was the centre
of an important market, where horses, camels, antimony, asafoetida,
dried fruits, shawls, arrows, muslins, cotton and woollen goods from
the Punjab, Cabulistan, and Cashmere, were to be had. Slaves, too, were
to be bought there from three to thirty years of age, at prices varying
from 10 to 150 rupees. This fair, where such different races,
languages, and costumes were to be met with, presented a curious
spectacle.
Upon the 12th of April the English expedition set out for Gangautri,
following a road planted with white mulberries and figs, as far as
Gourondar. A little farther on water-mills of simple construction were
at work, upon the banks of streams shaded with willows and
raspberry-trees. The soil was fertile, but the tyranny of the
Government prevented the natives from making the best of it.
The route soon became mountainous, but peach, apricot, nut, and other
European trees abounded, and at length the expedition found themselves
in the midst of a chain of mountains, which appeared to belong to the
Himalaya range.
The Baghirati, which is known further on as the Ganges, was met with at
the end of a pass. To the left, the river is bounded by high, almost
barren mountains; to the right stretches a fertile valley. At the
village of Tchiavli, the poppy is largely cultivated for the
preparation of opium; here, owing probably, to the bad quality of the
water, all the peasants suffer from wens.
At Djosvara the travellers had to cross a bridge of rope, called a
"djorila." This was a strange and perilous structure.
"On either side of the river," says Webb, "two strong poles are driven
in, at a distance of two feet from each other, and across them is
placed another piece of wood. To this is attached a dozen or more thick
ropes, which are held down upon the ground by large heaps of wood. They
are divided into two packets, about a foot apart; Blow hangs a ladder
of rope knotted to one of these, which answers instead of a parapet.
The flooring of the bridge is composed of small branches of trees,
placed at intervals of two and a half, or three feet from each other.
As these are generally slender, they seem as if they were on the point
of breaking every moment, which naturally induces the traveller to
depend upon the support of the ropes which form the parapet, and to
keep them constantly under their arms. The first step taken upon so
shaky a structure is sufficient to cause giddiness, for the action of
walking makes it swing to either side, and the noise of the torrent
over which it is suspended is not reassuring. Moreover the bridge is so
narrow, that if two persons meet upon it, one must draw completely to
the side to make room for the other."
[Illustration: Bridge of rope.]
The expedition afterwards passed through the town of Baharat, where but
few of the houses have been rebuilt since the earthquake of 1803. This
locality has always enjoyed a certain importance from the fact that a
market is held there, and also on account of the difficulty of
obtaining provisions in the towns higher up, as well as from its
central position. The routes to Jemauhi, Kedar, Nath, and Sirinagur all
meet there.
Beyond Batheri the road became so bad that the travellers were obliged
to abandon their baggage. There was a mere path-track by the edge of
precipices, amid débris of stones and rocks; and the attempt to proceed
was soon relinquished.
Devaprayaga is situated at the junction of the Baghirati, and the
Aluknanda. The first, coming from the north, hurries along with noise
and impetuosity; the second, broader, deeper, and more tranquil, rises
no less than forty-six feet above its ordinary level in the rainy
season. The junction of these two rivers forms the Ganges, and is a
sacred spot from which the Brahmins draw considerable profit, as they
have arranged pools there, where for a certain price pilgrims can
perform their ablutions without danger of being carried away by the
current.
The Aluknanda was crossed by means of a running bridge, or "Dindla,"
which is thus described:--
"This bridge consists of three or four large ropes fixed upon either
bank, and upon these a small seat some eighteen inches square is slung
by means of hoops at either end. Upon this seat the traveller takes his
place, and is drawn from one side of the river to the other by a rope
pulled by the man upon the opposite bank."
The expedition reached Sirinagur upon the 13th of May. The curiosity of
the inhabitants had been so much excited that the magistrates sent a
message to the English begging them to march through the town.
Sirinagur, which had been visited by Colonel Hardwick in 1796, had been
almost completely destroyed by the earthquake of 1803, and had in the
same year been conquered by the Gorkhalis. Here Webb was joined by the
emissaries whom he had sent to Gangautri by the route which he himself
had been unable to follow, and who had visited the source of the
Ganges.
"A large rock," he says, "on either side of which water flows, and
which is very shallow, roughly resembles the body and mouth of a cow. A
cavity at one end of its surface gave rise to its name of Gaoumokhi,
the mouth of the cow, who, by its fancied resemblance, is popularly
supposed to vomit the water of the sacred river. A little farther on,
advance is impossible, a mountain as steep as a wall rises in front;
the Ganges appeared to issue from the snow, which lay at its feet; the
valley terminated here. No one has ever gone any farther."
The expedition returned by a different route. It met with the
tributaries of the Ganges, and of the Keli Ganga, or Mandacni, rivers
rising in the Mountains of Kerdar. Immense flocks of goats and sheep
laden with grain were met with, numbers of defiles crossed, and after
passing the towns of Badrinath and Manah the expedition finally reached
the cascade of Barson, in the midst of heavy snow and intense cold.
"This," says Webb's narrative, "is the goal of the devotions of the
pilgrims. Some of them come here to be sprinkled by the sacred spray of
the cascade. At this spot the course of the Aluknanda may be traced as
far as the south-western extremity of the valley, but its source is
hidden under heaps of snow, which have probably been accumulating for
centuries."
Webb furnishes some details respecting the women of Manah. They wore
necklaces, earrings, and gold and silver ornaments, which were scarcely
in keeping with their coarse attire. Some of the children wore
necklaces and bracelets of silver to the value of six hundred rupees.
In winter, this town, which does a great trade with Thibet, is
completely buried in snow, and the natives take refuge in neighbouring
towns.
The expedition visited the temple at Badrinath, which is far-famed for
its sanctity. Neither its internal nor external structure or appearance
give any idea of the immense sums which are expended upon it. It is one
of the oldest and most venerated sanctuaries of India. Ablutions are
performed there in reservoirs fed with very warm sulphureous water.
"There are," says the narrative, "a great number of hot springs, each
having their special name and virtue, and from all of them doubtless
the Brahmins derive profit. For this reason, the poor pilgrim, as he
gets through the requisite ablutions, finds his purse diminish with the
number of his sins, and the many tolls exacted from him upon the road
to paradise might induce him to consider the narrow way by no means the
least expensive one. This temple possesses seven hundred villages,
which have either been ceded to it by government, given as security for
loans, or bought by private individuals and given as offerings."
The expedition reached Djosimah on the 1st of June. There the Brahmin
who acted as guide received orders from the government of Nepaul, to
conduct the travellers back immediately to the territories of the
Company. The government had discovered, a little late it must be
admitted, that the English explorations had a political as well as a
geographical significance. A month afterwards, Webb and his companions
entered Delhi, having definitely settled the course of the Ganges, and
ascertained the sources of the Baghirati and Aluknanda; in fact, having
attained the object which the Company had had in view.
In 1808, the English government decided upon sending a new mission to
the Punjab, then under the dominion of Runjeet Sing. The anonymous
narrative of this expedition published in the "Annales des Voyages"
offers some particulars of interest, from which we will extract a few.
Upon the 6th of April, 1808, an English officer, in charge of the
expedition, reached Herdonai, which he represents as the rendezvous of
a million individuals at the time of the yearly fair. At Boria, which
is situated between the Jumna and the Sutlej, the traveller was an
object of much curiosity to the women, who begged permission to come
and see him.
"Their looks and gestures," says the narrative, "sufficiently expressed
their surprise. They approached me laughing heartily, the colour of my
face amused them extremely. They addressed many questions to me, asking
me whether I never wore a hat, whether I exposed my face to the sun,
whether I remained continually shut up, or only walked out under
shelter, and whether I slept upon the table placed in my tent, although
my bed occupied one side of it; the curtains were, however, closed.
They then examined it in detail, together with the lining of my tent
and everything belonging to it. These women were all good-looking, with
mild and regular features, their complexion was olive, and contrasted
agreeably with their white and even teeth, which are a distinguishing
feature of all the inhabitants of the Punjab."
Mustafabad, Mulana, and Umballa were visited in succession by the
British officer. The country through which he passed was inhabited by
Sikhs, a race remarkable for benevolence, hospitality, and
truthfulness. The author of the narrative is of opinion that they are
the finest race of men in India. Puttiala, Makeonara, Fegonara,
Oudamitta, which Lord Lake entered in 1805 in his pursuit of a Mahratta
chief, and finally Amritsur were stages easily passed.
Amritsur is better built than the generality of towns in Hindustan. It
is the largest depôt of shawls and saffron as well as other articles of
Deccan merchandise. The traveller says:--
"Upon the 14th, having put white shoes on my feet, I paid a visit to
the Amritsur or reservoir of the elixir of immortality from whence the
city derives its name. It is a reservoir of about 135 feet square,
built of brick, and in the centre is a pretty temple dedicated to
Gourogovind Sing. A footpath leads to it; it is decorated both within
and without, and the rajah often adds to its stores by gifts of
ornaments. In this sacred receptacle, the book of the laws, written by
Gouron in the 'gourou moukhtis' character, is placed. This temple is
called Hermendel, or the Dwelling of God. Some 600 priests are attached
to its service, and comfortable dwellings are provided for them out of
the voluntary contributions of the devotees who visit the temple.
Although the priests are regarded with infinite respect, they are not
absolutely free from vice. When they have money, they spend it as
freely as they have gained it. The number of pretty women who daily
repair to the temple is very great. They far excel the women of the
inferior classes in Hindustan in the elegance of their manners, their
fine proportions, and handsome features."
Lahore was next visited by the officer. It is interesting to know what
remained of that fine city at the commencement of the present century.
The narrative says:--
"Its very high walls are ornamented externally with all the profusion
of Eastern taste, but they are falling into ruins, as are also the
mosques and houses inside the town. Time has laid its destructive hand
upon this city, as upon Delhi and Agra. The ruins of Lahore are already
as extensive as those of that ancient capital."
Three days after his arrival the traveller was received with great
politeness by Runjeet Sing, who conversed with him, principally upon
military topics. The rajah was then twenty-seven years of age. His
countenance would have been pleasant, had not the small-pox deprived
him of one eye; his manners were simple, affable, and yet kingly. After
paying visits to the tomb of Shah Jehan, to the Schalamar, and other
monuments at Lahore, the officer returned to Delhi and the possessions
of the Company. To his visit was due that better knowledge of the
country which could not fail to tempt the ambition of the English
Government.
The following year (1809), an embassy, consisting of Messrs. Nicholas
Hankey Smith, Henry Ellis, Robert Taylor, and Henry Pottinger, was sent
to the Emirs of Scinde. The escort was commanded by Captain Charles
Christie.
The mission was transported to Keratchy by boat. The governor of that
fort refused to allow the embassy to disembark, without instructions
from the emirs. An interchange of correspondence ensued, as a result of
which the envoy, Smith, drew attention to certain improprieties
relating to the title and respective rank of the Governor-General and
the emirs. The governor excused himself upon the ground of his
ignorance of the Persian language, and said, that not wishing a cause
of misunderstanding to exist, he was quite ready to kill or put out the
eyes (as the envoy pleased) of the person who had written the letter.
This declaration appeared sufficient to the English, who deprecated the
execution of the guilty person.
In their letters the emirs affected a tone of contemptuous superiority;
at the same time they brought a body of 8000 men within reach, and put
every possible difficulty in the way of the English efforts to procure
information. After tedious negotiations, in the course of which British
pride was humbled more than once, the embassy received permission to
start for Hyderabad.
Above Keratchy, which is the principal export harbour of Scinde, a vast
plain without trees or vegetation extends along the coast. Five days
are necessary to cross this, and reach Tatah, the ancient capital of
Scinde, then ruined and deserted. Formerly it was brought into
communication by means of canals, with the Sind, an immense river,
which is, at its mouth, in reality an arm of the sea. Pottinger
collected the most precise, complete, and useful details respecting the
Sind, which were then known.
It had been arranged beforehand that the embassy should find a
plausible excuse for separating and reaching Hyderabad by two different
routes, in order to obtain geographical information on the country. The
city was soon reached, and the same difficult negotiations about the
reception of the embassy, who refused to submit to the humiliating
exactions of the emirs, had to be gone through. Pottinger thus
describes the arrival at Hyderabad. "The precipice upon which the
eastern façade of the fortress of Hyderabad is situated, the roofs of
the houses, and even the fortifications, were thronged by a multitude
of both sexes, who testified friendly feeling towards us by acclamation
and applause. Upon reaching the palace, where they were to dismount,
the English were met by Ouli Mahommed Khan and other eminent officers,
who walked before us towards a covered platform, at the extremity of
which the emirs were seated. This platform being covered with the
richest Persian carpet, we took off our shoes. From the moment the
envoy took the first step towards the princes, they all three rose, and
remained standing until he reached the place pointed out to him--an
embroidered cloth, which distinguished him from the rest of the
embassy. The princes addressed to each of us polite questions
respecting our health. As it was a purely ceremonial reception,
everything went off well, with compliments and polite expressions.
"The emirs wore a great number of precious stones, in addition to those
which ornamented the hilts and scabbards of their swords and daggers,
and emeralds and rubies of extraordinary size shone at their girdles.
They were seated according to age, the eldest in the centre, the second
to his right, the youngest on the left. A carpet of light felt covered
the entire circle, and over this was a mattress of silk about an inch
thick, exactly large enough to accommodate the three princes."
[Illustration: "They were seated according to age."]
The narrative concludes with a description of Hyderabad, a fortress
which would have scarcely been able to offer any resistance to a
European enemy, and with various reflections upon the nature of the
embassy, which had amongst other aims the closing of the entrance of
Scinde against the French. The treaty concluded, the English returned
to Bombay.
By this expedition the East India Company gained a better knowledge of
one of the neighbouring kingdoms, and collected precious documents
relating to the resources and productions of a country traversed by an
immense river, the Indus of the ancients, which rises in the Himalayas,
and might readily serve to transport the products of an immense
territory. The end gained was perhaps rather political than
geographical; but science profited, once more, by political needs.
Hitherto the little knowledge that had been gained of the regions lying
between Cabulistan, India, and Persia, had been as incomplete as it was
defective.
The Company, thoroughly satisfied with the manner in which Captain
Christie and Lieutenant Pottinger had accomplished their embassy,
resolved to confide to them a delicate and difficult mission. They were
to rejoin General Malcolm, ambassador to Persia, by crossing
Beluchistan, and in so doing to collect more accurate and precise
details of that vast extent of country than had hitherto been acquired.
It was useless to think of crossing Beluchistan, with its fanatic
population, in European dress. Christie and Pottinger, therefore, had
recourse to a Hindu merchant, who provided horses on behalf of the
Governments of Madras and Bombay, and accredited them as his agents to
Kelat, the capital of Beluchistan.
Upon the 2nd of January, 1810, the two officers embarked at Bombay for
Someany, the sole sea-port of the province of Lhossa, which they
reached after a stay at Poorbunder, on the coast of Guzerat.
The entire country traversed by the travellers before they arrived at
Bela was a morass, interspersed with jungle. The "Djam," or governor of
that town, was an intelligent man. He put numerous questions to the
English, by which he showed a desire to learn, and then confided the
task of conducting the travellers to Kelat, to the chief of the tribe
of Bezendjos, who are Belutchis.
[Illustration: Beluchistan warriors. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
The climate had changed since they left Bombay, and in the mountains,
Pottinger and Christie experienced cold sufficiently keen to freeze the
water in the leather bottles.
"Kelat," says Pottinger, "the capital of the whole of Beluchistan,
whence it derives its name, Kelat, or -the city-, is situated upon a
height to the west of a well-cultivated plain or valley, eight miles
long and three wide. The greater portion of this is laid out in
gardens. The town forms a square. It is surrounded on three sides by a
mud wall about twenty feet high, flanked, at distances of 250 feet, by
bastions, which, like the walls, are pierced with a large number of
barbicans for musketry. I had no opportunity of visiting the interior
of the palace, but it consists merely of a confused mass of mud
buildings with flat roofs like terraces; the whole is defended by low
walls, furnished with parapets and pierced with barbicans. There are
about 2500 houses in the town, and nearly half as many in the suburbs.
They are built of half-baked bricks and wood, the whole smeared over
with mud. The streets, as a rule, are larger than those in towns
inhabited by Asiatics. They usually have a raised footway on either
side for pedestrians, in the centre an open stream, which is rendered
very unpleasant by the filth and rubbish thrown into it, and by the
stagnant rainwater which collects, for there is no regulation insisting
upon it being cleaned. Another obstacle to the cleanliness and comfort
of the town exists in the projection of the upper stories of the
houses, which makes the under buildings damp and dark. The bazaar of
Kelat is very large, and well stocked with every kind of merchandize.
Every day it is supplied with provisions, vegetables, and all kinds of
food, which are cheap."
According to Pottinger's account, the population is divided into two
distinct classes--the Belutchis and the Brahouis, and each of these is
subdivided into a number of tribes. The first is related to the modern
Persian, both in appearance and speech; the Brahoui, on the contrary,
retains a great number of Hindu words. Intermarriage between the two
has given rise to a third.
The Belutchis, coming from the mountains of Mekram, are "Tunnites,"
that is to say, they consider the first four Imans as the legitimate
successors of Mahomet.
They are a pastoral people, and have the faults and virtues of their
class. If they are hospitable, they are also indolent, and pass their
time in gambling and smoking. As a rule, they content themselves with
one or two wives, and are less jealous of their being seen by strangers
than are other Mussulmen. They have a large number of slaves of both
sexes, whom they treat humanely. They are excellent marksmen, and
passionately fond of hunting. Brave under all circumstances, they take
pleasure in "razzias," which they call "tchépaos." As a rule, these
expeditions are undertaken by the Nherouis, the wildest and most
thievish of the Belutchis.
The Brahouis carry their wandering habits still farther. Few men are
more active and strong; they endure the glacial cold of the mountains
equally with the burning heat of the plains. They are of small stature,
but as brave, as skilful in shooting, as faithful to their promises, as
the Belutchis, and have not so pronounced a taste for plunder.
Pottinger says, "I have seen no Asiatic people whom they resemble, for
a large number have brown hair and beards."
After a short stay at Kelat, the two travellers, who still passed as
horse-dealers, resolved to continue their journey, but instead of
following the high road to Kandahar, they crossed a dreary and barren
country, ill-populated, watered by the Caisser, a river which dries up
during the summer; and they reached a little town, called Noschky or
Nouchky, on the frontier of Afghanistan.
At this place, the Belutchis, who appeared friendly, represented to
them the great difficulty of reaching Khorassan and its capital, Herat,
by way of Sedjistan. They advised the travellers to try to reach Kerman
by way of Kedje and Benpor, or by Serhed, a village on the western
frontier of Beluchistan, and from thence to enter Nermanchir. At the
same moment the idea of following two distinct routes presented itself
to both Christie and Pottinger. This course was contrary to their
instructions; "but," said Pottinger, "we found a ready excuse in the
unquestionable advantage which would result from our procuring more
extensive geographical and statistical knowledge of the country we were
sent to explore than we could hope to do by travelling together."
Christie set out first, by way of Douchak. We shall follow his fortunes
hereafter.
A few days later, while still at Noutch, Pottinger received letters
from his correspondent at Kelat, telling him that the emirs of Scinde
were searching for them, as they had been recognized, and that his best
plan for safety was to set out immediately.
Upon the 25th of March Pottinger started for Serawan, a very small town
near the Afghan frontier. Upon his way thither Pottinger met with some
singular altars, or tombs, the construction of which was attributed to
the Ghebers, or fire-worshippers, who are known in our day as Parsees.
Serawan is six miles from the Serawani mountains, in a sterile and bare
district. This town owes its existence to the constant supply of water
it derives from the Beli, an inestimable advantage in a country
constantly exposed to drought, scarcity, and famine.
Pottinger afterwards visited the Kharan, celebrated for the strength
and activity of its camels, and crossed the desert which forms the
southern extremity of Afghanistan. The sand of this desert is so fine
that its particles are almost impalpable, and the action of the wind
causes it to accumulate into heaps ten or twenty feet high, divided by
deep valleys. Even in calm weather a great number of particles float in
the air, giving rise to a mirage of a peculiar kind, and getting into
the traveller's eyes, mouth, and nostrils, cause an excessive
irritation, with an insatiable thirst.
In all this territory, Pottinger personated a "pyrzadeh," or holy man,
for the natives are of a very thievish disposition, and in the
character of a merchant he might have been involved in unpleasant
adventures. After leaving the village of Goul, in the district of
Daizouk, the traveller passed through the ruined towns of Asmanabad,
Hefter, and Pourah, where Pottinger was forced to admit that he was a
"Feringhi," to the great scandal of the guide, who during the two
months they had been together had never doubted him, and to whom he had
given many proofs of sanctity.
At last, worn out by fatigue, and at the end of his resources,
Pottinger reached Benpor, a locality which had been visited in 1808 by
Mr. Grant, a captain in the Bengal Sepoy Infantry. Encouraged by the
excellent account given by that officer, Pottinger presented himself to
the Serdar. But instead of affording him the necessary help for the
prosecution of his journey, that functionary, discontented with the
small present Pottinger offered him, found means to extort from him a
pair of pistols, which would have been of great use to him.
Basman is the last inhabited town of Beluchistan. At this spot there is
a hot sulphureous spring, which the Belutchis consider a certain cure
for cutaneous diseases.
The frontiers of Persia are far from "scientific," hence a large tract
of country remains not neutral, but a subject of dispute, and is the
scene of sanguinary contests.
The little town of Regan, in Nermanchir, is very pretty. It is a fort,
or rather a fortified village, surrounded by high walls, in good
repair, and furnished with bastions.
Further on, in Persia proper, lies Benn, a town which was formerly of
importance, as the ruins which surround it sufficiently prove. Here
Pottinger was cordially received by the governor.
"On approaching," says Pottinger, "he turned to one of his suite and
asked where the 'Feringhi' was. I was pointed out to him. Making me a
sign to follow him, his fixed look at me, which took me in from head to
foot, proclaimed his astonishment at my costume, which in truth was
strange enough to serve as an excuse for the impoliteness of his
staring. I was wearing the long shirt of a Belutchi, and a pair of
trousers which had once been white, but which in the six weeks I had
worn them had become brown, and were all but in rags; in addition to
this I had on a blue turban, a piece of rope served me as a girdle, and
I carried in my hand a thick stick, which had assisted me greatly in my
walking, and protected me from dogs."
In spite of the dilapidated appearance of the tatterdemalion who thus
presented himself before him, the governor received Pottinger with as
much cordiality as was to be expected from a Mussulman, and provided
him with a guide to Kerman. The traveller reached that town upon the
3rd of May, feeling that he had accomplished the most difficult portion
of his journey, and was almost in safety.
Kerman is the capital of ancient Karamania. Under the Afghan rule it
was a flourishing town, and manufactured shawls which rivalled those of
Cashmere.
Here Pottinger witnessed one of those spectacles which, common enough
to countries where human life is of little value, always fill Europeans
with horror and disgust. The governor of this town was both son-in-law
and nephew of the shah, and also the son of the Shah's wife. "Upon the
15th of May," says Pottinger, "the prince himself judged certain
persons who were accused of killing one of their servants. It is
difficult to estimate the state of restlessness and alarm which
prevailed in the village during the entire day. The gates of the town
were shut, that no one might pass out. The government officials did not
transact any business. People were cited as witnesses, without previous
notice. I saw two or three taken to the palace in a state of agitation
which could scarcely have been greater had they been going to the
scaffold. About three in the afternoon the prince passed sentence upon
those who had been convicted. Some had their eyes put out, some the
tongue split. Some had the ears, nose, and lips cut off; others were
deprived of their hands, fingers, or toes. I learned that whilst these
horrible punishments were inflicted, the prince remained seated at the
window where I had seen him, and gave his orders without the least sign
of compassion or of horror at the scene which took place before him."
Leaving Kerman, Pottinger reached Cheré Bebig, which is equally distant
from Yezd, Shiraz, and Kerman, and thence proceeded to Ispahan, where
he had the pleasure of finding his companion Christie. At Meragha he
met General Malcolm. It was now seven months since they had left
Bombay. Christie had traversed 2250 miles, and Pottinger 2412.
Meanwhile Christie had accomplished his perilous journey much better
than he had anticipated.
Leaving Noutch upon the 22nd of March, he crossed the Vachouty
mountains and some uncultivated country, to the banks of the Helmend, a
river which flows into Lake Hamoun.
Christie in his report to the Company says:--
"The Helmend, after passing near Kandahar, flows south-west and west,
and enters Sedjestan some four days march from Douchak; making a détour
around the mountains, it finally forms a lake. At Peldalek, which we
visited, it is about 1200 feet in width, and very deep; the water is
very good. The country is cultivated by irrigation for half a mile on
either side; then the desert begins, and rises in perpendicular cliffs.
The banks of the river abound in tamarind-trees and provide pasturage
for cattle."
Sedjestan, which is watered by this river, comprises only 500 square
miles. The portions of this district which are inhabited are those upon
the river Helmend, whose bed deepens every year.
At Elemdar Christie sent for a Hindu, to whom he had an introduction.
This man advised him to dismiss his Belutchi attendants and to
personate a pilgrim. A few days later he penetrated to Douchak, now
known as Jellalabad. He says:--
"The ruins of the ancient city cover quite as large a space of ground
as Ispahan. It was built, like all the towns of Sedjistan, of
half-burned bricks, the houses being two stories high, with vaulted
roofs. The modern town of Jellalabad is clean, pretty, and growing; it
contains nearly 2000 houses and a fair bazaar." The road from Douchak
to Herat was easy. Christie's sole difficulty was in carrying out his
personation of a pilgrim. Herat lies in a valley, surrounded by high
mountains and watered by a river, to which it is due that gardens and
orchards abound. The town covers an area of about four square miles; it
is surrounded by a wall flanked with towers, and a moat full of water.
Large bazaars, containing numerous shops, and the Mechedé Djouna, or
Mosque of Friday, are its chief ornaments.
No town has less waste land or a denser population. Christie estimates
it at 100,000. Herat is the most commercial of all Asiatic towns under
the dominion of native princes. It is the depôt for all the traffic
between Cabul, Candahar, Hindustan, Cashmere, and Persia, and itself
produces choice merchandize, silks, saffron, horses, and asafoetida.
"This plant," says Christie, "grows to a height of two or three feet,
the stalk is two inches thick; it finishes off in an umbel which at
maturity is yellow, and not unlike a cauliflower. It is much relished
by Hindus and Belutchis. They prepare it for eating by cooking the
stalks in ashes, and boiling the head like other vegetables; but it
always retains its pungent smell and taste." Herat, like so many other
Eastern towns, possesses beautiful public gardens, but they are only
cultivated for the sake of the produce, which is sold in the bazaar.
After a stay of a month at Herat, disguised as a horse-dealer,
Christie, announcing that he would return after a pilgrimage to Meshid,
which he contemplated, left the town. He directed his course to Yezd,
across a country ravaged by the Osbeks, who had destroyed the tanks
intended to receive the rain-water.
Yezd is a large and populous town on the skirts of a desert of sand. It
is called "Dar-oul-Ehabet" or "The Seat of Adoration." It is celebrated
for the security to be enjoyed there, which contributes largely to the
development of its trade with Hindustan, Khorassan, Persia, and Bagdad.
Christie describes the bazaar as large and well stocked. The town
contains 20,000 houses, apart from those belonging to the Ghebers, who
are estimated at 4000. They are an active and laborious people,
although cruelly oppressed. From Yezd to Ispahan, where he alighted at
the palace of the Emir Oud-Daoulé, Christie had travelled a distance of
170 miles upon a good road.
At Yezd, as we have seen, he met his companion, Pottinger. The two
friends could but exchange mutual congratulations at the accomplishment
of their mission, and their escape from the dangers of a fanatical
country.
Pottinger's narrative, as may perhaps be gathered from the sketch we
have given, was very curious. More exact than most of his predecessors,
he had collected and offered to the public a mass of most interesting
historical facts, anecdotes, and geographical descriptions.
Cabulistan had been, from the middle of the eighteenth century, the
scene of a succession of ruinous civil wars. Competitors, with more or
less right to the throne, had carried fire and sword everywhere, and
converted that rich and fertile province into a desert, where the
remains of ruined cities alone bore witness to former prosperity.
About the year 1808 the throne of Cabul was occupied by
Soojah-Oul-Moulk. England, uneasy at the projects formed by Napoleon
with a view of attacking her possessions in India, and at the offers of
alliance made by him through General Gardane to the Shah of Persia,
resolved to send an embassy to the court of Cabul, hoping to gain the
king over to the interests of the East India Company.
Mountstuart Elphinstone was selected as envoy, and has left an
interesting account of his mission. He collected much novel information
concerning this region and the tribes by which it is peopled. His book
acquires a new interest in our own day, and we turn with pleasure to
pages devoted to the Khyberis and other mountain tribes, amid the
events which are now taking place.
Leaving Delhi in October, 1808, Elphinstone reached Kanun, where the
desert commences, and then the Shekhawuttée, a district inhabited by
Rajpoots. At the end of October the embassy arrived at Singuana, a
pretty town, the rajah of which was an inveterate opium-smoker. He is
described as a small man, with large eyes, much inflamed by the use of
opium. His beard, which was curled up to his ears on each side, gave
him a ferocious appearance.
Djounjounka, whose gardens give freshness in the midst of these desert
regions, is not now a dependency of the Rajah of Bekaneer, whose
revenues do not exceed 1,250,000 francs. How is it possible for that
prince to collect such revenues from a desert and uncultivated
territory, overrun by myriads of rats, flocks of gazelles, and herds of
wild asses?
The path across the sand-hills was so narrow that two camels abreast
could scarcely pass it. At the least deviation from the path those
animals would sink in the sand as if it had been snow, so that the
smallest difficulty with the head of the column delayed the entire
caravan. Those in front could not advance if those in the rear were
delayed; and lest they should lose sight of the guides, trumpets and
drums were employed as signals to prevent separation.
One could almost fancy it the march of an army. The warlike sounds, the
brilliant uniforms and arms, were scarcely calculated to convey the
idea of a peaceful embassy. The envoy speaks of the want of water, and
the bad quality of that which was procurable was unbearable to the
soldiers and servants. Although they quenched their thirst with the
abundant water-melons, they could not do so without ill results to
their health. Most of the natives of India who accompanied the embassy
suffered from low fever and dysentery. Forty persons died during the
first week's stay at Bekaneer. La Fontaine's description of the
floating sticks might be aptly applied to Bekaneer. "From afar off it
is something, near at hand it is nought." The external appearance of
the town is pleasant, but it is a mere disorderly collection of cabins
enclosed by mud walls.
At that time the country was invaded by five armies, and the
belligerents sent a succession of envoys to the English ambassador,
hoping to obtain, if not substantial assistance, at least moral
support. Elphinstone was received by the Rajah of Bekaneer. "This
court," he says, "was different from all I had seen elsewhere in India.
The men were whiter than the Hindus, resembled Jews in feature, and
wore magnificent turbans. The rajah and his relatives wore caps of
various colours, adorned with precious stones.
"The rajah leant upon a steel buckler, the centre of which was raised,
and the border encrusted with diamonds and rubies. Shortly after our
entrance the rajah proposed that we should retire from the heat and
importunity of the crowd. We took our seats on the ground, according to
Indian custom, and the rajah delivered a discourse, in which he said he
was the vassal of the sovereign of Delhi, and that as Delhi was in the
possession of the British, he honoured the sovereignty of my government
in my person.
"He caused the keys of the fort to be brought to him and handed them to
me, but having received no instructions regarding such an event, I
refused them. After much persuasion the rajah consented to keep his
keys. Shortly afterwards a troop of bayadères came in, and dancing and
singing continued until we took our leave."
[Illustration: "A troop of bayadères came in."]
Upon leaving Bekaneer the travellers entered a desert, in the middle of
which stand the cities of Monyghur and Bahawulpore, where a compact
crowd awaited the embassy. The Hyphases, upon which Alexander's fleet
sailed, scarcely answered to the idea such a reminiscence inspires.
Upon the morrow Bahaweel-Khan, governor of one of the eastern provinces
of Cabul, arrived, bringing magnificent presents for the English
ambassador, whom he conducted by the river Hyphases as far as Moultan,
a town famous for its silk manufactures. The governor of the town had
been terror-struck at hearing of the approach of the English, and there
had been a discussion as to the attitude it was to assume, and whether
the latter intended to take the town by stratagem, or to demand its
surrender. When these fears were allayed, a cordial welcome followed.
Elphinstone's description, if somewhat exaggerated, is not the less
curious. After describing how the governor saluted Mr. Strachey, the
secretary to the embassy, after the Persian custom, he adds,--"They
took their way together towards the tent, and the disorder increased.
Some were wrestling, others on horseback mixed with the pedestrians.
Mr. Strachey's horse was nearly thrown to the ground, and the secretary
regained his equilibrium with difficulty. The khan and his suite
mistook the road in approaching the tent, and threw themselves upon the
cavalry with such impetuosity that the latter had scarcely time to face
about and let them pass. The disordered troops fell back upon the tent,
the servants of the khan fled, the barriers were torn up and trampled
under foot; even the ropes of the tent broke, and the cloth covering
very nearly fell on our heads. The tents were crowded immediately, and
all was in darkness. The governor and six of his suite seated
themselves, the others stood at arms. The visit was of short duration;
the governor took refuge in repeating his rosary with great fervour,
and in saying to me, in agitated tones, 'You are welcome! you are
welcome!' Then on the pretext that the crowd inconvenienced me, he
retired."
The account is amusing, but are all its details accurate? That,
however, is of little moment. On the 31st December the embassy passed
the Indus, and entered a country cultivated with a care and method
unlike anything to be seen in Hindustan. The natives of this country
had never heard of the English, and took them for Moguls, Afghans, or
Hindus. The strangest reports were current among these lovers of the
marvellous.
It was necessary to remain a month at Déra, to await the arrival of a
"Mehnandar," a functionary whose duty it was to introduce ambassadors.
Two persons attached to the embassy availed themselves of that
opportunity to ascend the peak of Tukhte Soleiman, or the Crown of
Solomon, upon which, according to the legend, the ark of Noah rested
after the deluge.
The departure from Déra took place upon the 7th of February, and after
travelling through delightful countries, the embassy arrived at
Peshawur. The king had come to meet them, for Peshawur was not the
usual residence of the court. The narrative says,--"Upon the day of our
arrival our dinner was furnished from the royal kitchen. The dishes
were excellent. Afterwards we had the meat prepared in our own way; but
the king continued to provide us with breakfast, dinner, and supper,
more than sufficient for 2000 persons, 200 horses, and a large number
of elephants. Our suite was large, and much of this was needed; still I
had great trouble at the end of a month in persuading his majesty to
allow some retrenchment of this useless profusion."
As might have been expected, the negotiations preceding presentation at
court were long and difficult. Finally, however, all was arranged, and
the reception was as cordial as diplomatic customs permitted. The king
was loaded with diamonds and precious stones; he wore a magnificent
crown, and the Koh-i-noor sparkled upon one of his bracelets. This is
the largest diamond in existence; a drawing of it may be seen in
Tavernier's Travels.[1]
[Footnote 1: The Koh-i-noor is now in the possession of the Queen of
England.]
Elphinstone, after describing the ceremonies, says,--"I must admit that
if certain things, especially the extraordinary richness of the royal
costume, excited my astonishment, there was also much that fell below
my expectations. Taking it as a whole, one saw less indication of the
prosperity of a powerful state than symptoms of the decay of a monarchy
which had formerly been flourishing."
The ambassador goes on to speak of the rapacity with which the king's
suite quarrelled about the presents offered by the English, and gives
other details which struck him unpleasantly.
Elphinstone was more agreeably impressed with the king at his second
interview. He says,--"It is difficult to believe that an Eastern
monarch can possess such a good manner, and so perfectly preserve his
dignity while trying to please."
The plain of Peshawur, which is surrounded on all but the eastern side
by high mountains, is watered by three branches of the Cabul river,
which meet here, and by many smaller rivers. Hence it is singularly
fertile. Plums, peaches, pears, quinces, pomegranates, dates, grow in
profusion. The population, so sparsely sprinkled throughout the arid
countries which the ambassador had come through, were collected here,
and Lieut. Macartney counted no less than thirty-two villages.
At Peshawur there are 100,000 inhabitants, living in brick houses three
stories high. Various mosques, not in any way remarkable for
architecture, a fine caravanserai, and the fortified castle in which
the king received the embassy, are the only buildings of importance.
The varieties of races, with different costumes, present a constantly
changing picture, a human kaleidoscope, which appears made especially
for the astonishment of a stranger. Persians, Afghans, Kyberis,
Hazaurehs, Douranis, &c., with horses, dromedaries, and Bactrian
camels, afford the naturalist much both to observe and to describe
respecting bipeds and quadrupeds. But the charm of this town, as of
every other throughout India, is to be found in its gardens, with their
abundant and fragrant flowers, especially roses.
[Illustration: Afghan costumes. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
The king's situation at this time was far from pleasant. His brother,
whom he had dethroned after a popular insurrection, had now taken arms
and just seized Cabul. A longer stay was impossible for the embassy.
They had to return to India by way of Attock and the valley of Hussoun
Abdoul, which is celebrated for its beauty. There Elphinstone was to
await the result of the struggle between the brothers, which would
decide the fate of the throne of Cabul, but he had received letters of
recall. Moreover, fate was against Soojah, who, after being completely
worsted, had been forced to seek safety in flight.
The embassy proceeded on its way, and crossed the country of the
Sikhs--a rude mountain race, half-naked and semi-barbarous.
"The Sikhs, who a few years later were to make themselves terribly
famous," says Elphinstone, "are tall, thin men, and very strong. Their
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