Witzen's account of Tartary--China as described by the Jesuits and
Father Du Halde--Macartney in China--Stay at Chu-Sang--Arrival at
Nankin--Negotiations--Reception of the Embassy by the Emperor--Fêtes
and ceremonies at Zhe Hol--Return to Pekin and Europe--Volney--
Choiseul Gouffier--Le Chevalier in Troas--Olivier in Persia--A
semi-Asiatic country--Pallas's account of Russia.
At the end of the seventeenth century, a traveller named Nicolas
Witzen had explored eastern and northern Tartary, and in 1692
published a curious narrative of his journey. This work, which was in
Dutch, and was not translated into any other European language, did
not win for its author the recognition he deserved. A second edition,
illustrated with engravings which were meritorious rather from their
fidelity to nature than their artistic merit, was issued in 1705, and
in 1785 the remaining copies of this issue were collected, and
appeared under a new title. But it attracted little notice, as by this
time further, and more curious particulars had been obtained.
From the day that the Jesuits first entered the Celestial Empire, they
had collected every possible fact with regard to the customs of this
immense country, which previous to their stay there had been known
only through the extravagant tales of Marco Polo. Although China is
the country of stagnation, and customs and fashion always remain much
the same in it, the many events which had taken place made it
desirable to obtain more exact particulars of a nation with whom
Europeans might possibly enter into advantageous friendly relations.
The Jesuits published the result of these investigations in the rare
work entitled "Lettres Edifiantes," which was revised and supplemented
by a zealous member of their order, Father Du Halde. It would be
useless to attempt any reproduction of this immense work, for which a
volume would be required, and it is the less necessary as at this day
we have fuller and more complete details of the country than are to be
found even in the learned father's book. To the Jesuits also belong
the merit of many important astronomical observations, facts
concerning natural history, and the compilation of maps, which were
till quite lately authorities on remote districts of the country
consulted with advantages.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century, Abbé Grosier, of the order
of St. Louis du Louvre, published in an abridged form, a new
description of China and Tartary. He made use of the work of his
predecessor, Du Halde, and at the same time rectified and added to it.
After an account of the fifteen provinces of China and Tartary, with
the tributary States, such as Corea, Tonking, Cochin China, and Thibet,
the author devotes several chapters to the population and natural
history of China, whilst he reviews the government, religion, manners,
literature, science, and art of the Chinese.
Towards the end of the eighteenth century, the English Government,
being desirous of entering into commercial relations with China, sent
an Envoy-extraordinary to that country named George Macartney.
This diplomatist had already visited the courts of Europe and Russia,
had been governor of the English Antilles and Madras, and
Governor-General of India.
He had acquired in the course of his travels in such varied climates,
and amid such diverse peoples, a profound knowledge of human nature.
His narrative of his voyages is rich in facts and observations
calculated to give Europeans a true idea of the Chinese character.
Personal accounts of travel are always more interesting than anonymous
ones.
Although the great -I- is generally hateful, it is not so in travels,
where the assertion -I- have been there, -I- have done such or such a
thing, carries weight, and gives interest to the narrative.
Macartney and his suite sailed in a squadron consisting of three
vessels, the -Lion-, the -Hindustan-, and the -Jackal-, which left
Portsmouth on the 26th September, 1792.
[Illustration: Map of the Empire of China.]
After a few necessary delays at Rio-de-Janeiro, St. Paul and Amsterdam
Islands, where some seal-hunters were seen, at Batavia, and Bantam, in
Java, and at Poulo Condere, the vessels cast anchor off Turon (Han
San) in Cochin China, a vast harbour, of which only a very bad chart
was then in existence.
The arrival of the English was at first a cause of uneasiness to the
natives of Cochin China. But when they were once informed of the
motives which had brought the English to their country, they sent an
ambassador of high rank on board with presents for Macartney, who was
shortly afterwards invited to a banquet at the governor's, followed by
a dramatic entertainment. During the short stay many notes were taken
of the manners and customs of the people, unfortunately too hurriedly
to admit of accuracy.
As soon as the sick had recovered and fresh provisions had been
obtained the vessels set sail. A short stay was made at the Ladrone
Islands, and the squadron then entered the Strait of Formosa, where it
encountered stormy weather, and took refuge in Chusan Harbour. During
this stay the map of this archipelago was rectified and an opportunity
was taken to visit Tinghai, where the English excited as much
curiosity as they felt themselves at the sight of the many things
which were new to them.
Many of the facts which surprised them are familiar to us, the
appearance of the houses, the markets and dress of the Chinese, the
small feet of the women, and many other particulars to which we need
not refer. We will only allude to the account of the method employed
by them in cultivating dwarf trees.
"This stunted vegetation," says Macartney, "seems to be highly
appreciated in China, for specimens of it are found in all the larger
houses. It is an art peculiar to the Chinese, and the gardener's skill
consists in knowing how to produce it. Independently of the
satisfaction of triumphing over a difficulty, he has the advantage of
introducing into rooms plants whose natural size would have precluded
such a possibility.
"The following is the method employed in China for the production of
dwarfed trees. The trunk of a tree of which it is desired to obtain a
dwarfed specimen, is covered as nearly as possible where it separates
into branches with clay or mould, over which is placed a linen or
cotton covering constantly kept damp. This mould is sometimes left on
for a whole year, and throughout that time the wood it covers throws
out tender, root-like fibres. Then the portions of the trunk from
which issue these fibres, with the branch immediately above them, are
carefully separated from the tree and placed in fresh mould, where the
shoots soon develope into real roots, whilst the branch forms the stem
of a plant which is in a manner metamorphosed. This operation neither
destroys nor alters the productive faculties of the branch which is
separated from the parent tree. When it bears fruit or flowers it does
so as plentifully as when it was upon the original stem. The
extremities of the branches intended to be dwarfed are always pulled
off, which precludes the possibility of their growing tall, and forces
them to throw out shoots and lateral branches. These shoots are tied
with wire, and assume the form the gardener chooses. When it is
desired to give an aged appearance to the tree, it is constantly
moistened with theriaca or treacle, which attracts to it multitudes of
ants, who not content with devouring the sweetmeat, attack the bark of
the tree, and eat it away in such a manner as to produce the desired
effect."
Upon leaving Chusan, the squadron entered the Yellow Sea, never before
navigated by an European vessel. The river Hoang-Ho flows into it, and
it is from the immense quantity of yellow mud brought down by it in
its long and tortuous course that the sea derives its name.
The English vessels cast anchor in Ten-chou-Fou Bay, and thence
entered the gulf of Pekin, and halted outside the bar of Pei-Ho. There
being only three or four feet of water on this bar at low tide, the
vessels could not cross it.
The mandarins appointed by the government to receive the English
ambassador, arrived shortly after, bringing numerous presents; whilst
the gifts intended for the emperor were placed in junks, and Macartney
went on board a yacht which had been prepared for him.
The first town reached was Takoo, where Macartney received a visit
from the viceroy of the province and the principal mandarin. Both were
men of venerable and dignified aspect, polite and attentive, and
entirely free from obsequiousness.
"It has been rightly said," remarks Macartney, "that a people are as
they are made, and the English had continual proof of this truth in
the effect produced upon the Chinese character by the fear of the iron
power that ruled them. Apart from this fear they were cheerful and
confiding, but in the presence of their rulers they appeared most
timid and embarrassed."
In ascending the Pei-Ho towards Pekin, the course was retarded by the
many windings of the river. The country through which they passed was
highly cultivated, with houses and villages at intervals upon the
banks of the river or inland, alternating with cemeteries and pyramids
of bags of salt, producing a charming and ever varying landscape. When
night approached, lanterns of every hue, fastened to the masts and
rigging of the yachts, produced the fantastic effect of many-coloured
lights.
[Illustration: Chinese magic-lantern. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
Tieng Tsing signifies "heavenly spot," and the town owes this name to
its agreeable climate and clear blue sky, and the fertility of its
neighbourhood. In this place, the ambassador was received by the
viceroy and a legate sent by the emperor. From them Macartney learned
that the emperor was at his summer palace in Tartary, and that the
anniversary of his birthday was to be celebrated there upon the 13th
of September. The ambassador and his suite were therefore to go up by
water as far as Tong Schou, about a dozen miles from Pekin, and thence
proceed by land to Zhe Hol, where the emperor awaited them. The
presents might be sent on afterwards. Although the first intimation
was pleasant, the latter was singularly disagreeable to Macartney, for
the presents consisted for the most part of delicate instruments,
which had been taken to pieces for safety and packed separately. The
legate would not consent to their being left where they would be free
from danger of being disturbed. Macartney was obliged to obtain the
intervention of the viceroy for the protection of these proofs of the
genius and knowledge of Europe.
The cortège reached Tien Tsing, a town which appeared as long as
London, and contained not less than seven hundred thousand inhabitants.
A vast crowd assembled on the banks of the river to see the English
pass, and the river swarmed with junks teeming with natives.
The houses in this city are built of blue with a few red bricks, some
are two stories high, but that is unusual. Here the English saw the
employment of those carriages with sails which had long been
considered fabulous. They consist of two barrows made of bamboo, with
one large wheel between them.
When there is not sufficient wind to propel the carriage, says the
narrative, it is drawn by one man, while another pushes behind and
keeps it steady. When the wind is favourable, the sail, which is a mat
attached to two sticks placed upon either side of the carriage,
renders the help of the man in front unnecessary.
The banks of the Pei-Ho are in many parts protected by breastworks of
granite, to arrest inundation, and here and there dikes, also of
granite, provided with a sluice, by means of which water is conveyed
to the fields below. The country, although well cultivated, was often
devastated by famines, following upon inundations, or resulting from
the ravages of locusts.
Thus far, the cortège had been sailing through the immense alluvial
plain of Pe-tche-Li. Not until the fourth day after leaving Tien Tsing
was the blue outline of mountains perceived on the horizon. Pekin was
now in sight; and on the 6th of August, 1793, the yachts anchored
within two miles of the capital, and half a mile from Tong-Chow-Fow.
In order to leave the presents which could not be taken to Zhe Hol, at
the palace, called "The garden of eternal spring," it was necessary to
land. The inhabitants of Tong-Chow-Fow, who were already greatly
excited by the appearance of the English, were still more amazed at
the first sight of a negro servant. His skin, his jet black colour,
his woolly hair, and all the distinguishing marks of his race, were
absolutely novel in this part of China. The people could not remember
seeing anything at all like him before. Some of them even doubted if
he could be a human being at all, and the children cried out in fear
that it was a black devil. But his good humour soon reconciled them to
his appearance, and they became accustomed to look upon him without
fear or displeasure.
The English were especially surprised at seeing upon a wall the sketch
of a lunar eclipse which was to take place in a few days. They
ascertained among other facts, that silver is an article of commerce
with the Chinese, for they have no coined money, but use ingots
bearing only a sign, indicative of their weight. The English were
struck with the extraordinary resemblance between the religious
ceremonies of Fo and those of the Christians.
Macartney states that certain authors maintain that the apostle Thomas
visited China; while the Missionary Tremore contends, that this is
merely a fiction palmed upon the Jesuits by the devil himself.
Ninety small carriages, forty-four wheelbarrows, more than two hundred
horses, and over three thousand men, were employed in the transport of
the presents of the British government to the emperor. Macartney and
three of his suite accompanied the convoy in palanquins. An enormous
crowd followed them. The English ambassador was greeted at the gates
of Pekin by volleys of artillery. Once beyond the fortifications, he
found himself in a wide unpaved street, with houses on either side,
one or two stories high. Across the street extended a wooden triumphal
arch in three partitions, each with a lofty and highly decorated roof.
The embassy afforded ample material for the tales which at this time
filled the imagination of the people. It was declared that the
presents brought for the emperor consisted of everything that was rare
in other countries and unknown in China. It was gravely asserted that
among the animals, there was an elephant not larger than a monkey, but
as fierce as a lion, and a cock which was fed upon coal. Everything
which came from England was supposed to differ from anything hitherto
seen in Pekin, and to possess the very opposite qualities to those
usual to it.
The wall of the imperial palace was at once recognized by its yellow
colour. Through the gate were seen artificial hills, lakes and rivers,
with small islets, and fantastic buildings amidst the trees.
At the end of a street terminating at the northern wall of the city,
was a vast edifice of considerable height, which contained an enormous
bell. The English explored the town in various directions, and on the
whole were not favourably impressed. They concluded that a Chinaman
visiting London, with its bridges and innumerable ships, its squares
and monuments, would carry away a better idea of the importance of the
capital of Great Britain than they could do of Pekin.
Upon their arrival at the palace, where the presents for the emperor
were to be displayed, the governor discussed with Macartney the best
way to arrange and display them. They were finally placed in a large
and well-decorated hall, which at the time contained nothing but a
throne and a few vases of old china.
It is unnecessary to enter upon the interminable negotiations which
arose out of the resolve of the Chinese, that Macartney should
prostrate himself before the emperor; which humiliating proposition
they had prepared for by the inscription placed upon the yachts and
carriages of the embassy, "Ambassador bringing tribute from England."
[Illustration: Emperor of China. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
It is in Pekin that the field is situated which the emperor, in
accordance with ancient custom, sows every spring. Here, too, is to be
found the "Temple of the Earth," to which the sovereign resorts at the
summer solstice, to acknowledge the astral power which lightens the
world, and to give thanks for its beneficent influence.
Pekin is merely the seat of the Imperial government in China, and has
neither shipping, manufactures, nor trade.
Macartney computes the number of inhabitants at three millions. The
one-storied houses in the town appear insufficient for so large a
population, but a single house accommodates three generations. This
density of the population is the result of the early ages at which
marriages are contracted. These hasty unions are often brought about
from prudential motives by the Chinese, the children, and especially
the sons, being responsible for the care of their parents.
The embassy left Pekin on the 2nd of September, 1793, Macartney,
travelling in a post-chaise, probably the first carriage of the kind
which ever entered Tartary.
As the distance from Pekin increased, the road ascended and the soil
became more sandy, and contained less and less clay and black earth.
Shortly afterwards, vast plains, planted with tobacco, were crossed.
Macartney imagines tobacco to be indigenous, and not imported from
America, and thinks that the habit of smoking was spontaneous in Asia.
The English soon noticed that as the soil became more and more barren,
the population decreased. At the same time the Tartar element became
larger and larger, and the difference between the manners of the
Chinese and their conquerors was less marked.
Upon the fifth day of the journey, the far-famed Great Wall was seen.
"The first glance at this fortified wall," says Macartney, "is enough
to give an impression of an enterprise of surprising grandeur. It
ascends the highest mountains to their very loftiest peaks, it goes
down into the deepest valleys, crossing rivers on sustaining arches,
and with its breadth often doubled and trebled to increase its
strength, whilst at intervals of about a hundred paces rise towers or
strong bastions. It is difficult to understand how the materials for
this wall were brought to and used in places apparently inaccessible,
and it is impossible sufficiently to admire the skill brought to bear
upon the task. One of the loftiest mountains over which the wall
passes has been ascertained to be no less than 5225 feet high.
"This fortification--for the simple word 'wall' gives no just idea of
the wonderful structure--is said to be 1500 miles long, but it is not
quite finished. The fifteen hundred miles was the extent of the
frontier which separates colonized China from the various Tartar
tribes. Such barriers as these would not suffice in modern times for
nations at war.
"Many of the lesser works in the interior of this grand rampart have
yielded to the effect of time, and fallen into ruins; others have been
repaired; but the principal wall appears throughout to have been built
with such care and skill as never to have needed repairs. It has now
been preserved more than two thousand years, and appears as little
susceptible of injury as the rocks which nature herself has planted
between China and Tartary."
[Illustration: The great wall of China.]
Beyond the wall nature seems to proclaim the entrance into a new
country; the temperature is colder, the roads are more rugged, and the
mountains are less wooded. The number of sufferers from goître in the
Tartar valleys is very considerable, and, according to the estimate
given by Dr. Gillan, physician to the embassy, comprises a sixth of
the population. The portion of Tartary in which this malady rages is
not unlike many of the cantons of Switzerland and Savoy.
The valley of Zhe Hol, where the emperor possesses a summer palace and
garden, was at length reached. This residence is called "The abode of
pleasant freshness," and the park surrounding it is named the "Garden
of innumerable trees." The embassy was received with military honours,
amid an immense crowd of people, many of whom were dressed in yellow.
These were inferior lamas or monks of the order of Fo, to which the
emperor also belonged.
The disputes as to prostration before the emperor begun in Pekin were
continued here. At last Tchien Lung consented to content himself with
the respectful salutation with which English nobles are accustomed to
greet their own sovereign. The reception accordingly took place, with
every imaginable pomp and ceremony.
The narrative says,--
"Shortly after daybreak the sound of many instruments, and the
confused voices of distant crowds, announced the approach of the
emperor. He soon appeared, issuing from behind a high mountain,
bordered with trees, as if from a sacred grove, and preceded by a
number of men who proclaimed his virtues and power in loud voices. He
was seated in a chair carried by sixteen men; his guards, the officers
of his household, standard and umbrella bearers, and musicians
accompanied him. He was clothed in a robe of sombre-coloured silk, and
wore a velvet cap, very similar in shape to that of Scotch
mountaineers. A large pearl was conspicuous on his forehead, and was
the only jewel or ornament he wore."
Upon entering the tent, the emperor mounted the steps of the throne,
which he alone is allowed to ascend. The first minister, Ho Choo-Tang,
and two of the chief officers of his household, remained near, and
never addressed him but in a kneeling position. When the princes of
royal blood, the tributary princes, and state officers, were in their
places, the president of the customs conducted Macartney within a foot
of the left-hand side of the throne, which in the Chinese court is
considered the place of honour. The ambassador was accompanied by the
minister plenipotentiary, and followed by his page and interpreter.
Macartney, in accordance with the instructions given him by the
president, raised above his head the magnificent square golden box
studded with diamonds, which contained the King of England's letter to
the emperor. Then mounting the few steps leading to the throne, he
bowed the knee, and, with a short prefatory compliment, presented the
box to his Imperial Majesty. The Chinese monarch received it
graciously, and said, as he placed it on one side, "that he
experienced much satisfaction at the token of esteem and friendship
offered by his Britannic Majesty in sending to him an embassy with a
letter and rich gifts; that, for his part, he had the like friendly
feelings towards the King of Great Britain, and he hoped the same
harmony would always continue between their respective subjects."
After a few moments of private conversation with the ambassador, the
emperor presented gifts to him and to the minister plenipotentiary.
They were then conducted to cushions, in front of which were tables
covered with a number of vessels containing meat and fruits. The
emperor also partook of these, and continued to overwhelm the
ambassadors with expressions of regard and esteem, which had a great
effect in raising the English in the estimation of the Chinese public.
Macartney and his suite were later invited to visit the gardens of Zhe
Hol. During their walk in the grounds, the English met the emperor,
who stopped to receive their respectful salutations, and order his
first minister, who was looked upon as little less than a vice-emperor,
and several other grandees to accompany them.
[Illustration: Chinese Prime Minister. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
The Chinese conducted the English over a portion of the grounds laid
out as pleasure-gardens, which formed only a small portion of the vast
enclosure. The rest is sacred to the use of the women of the imperial
family, and was as rigorously closed to the Chinese ministers as to
the English embassy.
Macartney was then led through a fertile valley, in which there were
many trees, chiefly willows of enormous size. Grass grows abundantly
between the trees, and its luxuriance is not diminished by cattle or
interfered with by mowing. Arriving upon the shores of an irregular
lake, of vast extent, the whole party embarked in yachts, and
proceeded to a bridge which is thrown across the narrowest part of the
lake, and beyond which it appeared to stretch away indefinitely.
Upon the 17th of September Macartney and his suite were present at a
ceremony which took place upon the anniversary of the emperor's
birthday. Upon the morrow and following days splendid fêtes succeeded
each other, Tchien Lung participating in them with great zest. Dancers
on the tight-rope, tumblers, conjurors (of unrivalled skill), and
wrestlers, performed in succession. The natives of various portions of
the empire appeared in their distinctive costumes and exhibited the
different productions of their provinces. Music and dancing were
succeeded by fireworks, which were very effective, although they were
let off in daylight.
The narrative says,--
"Several of the designs were novel to the English. One of them I will
describe. A large box was raised to a great height, and the bottom
being removed as if by accident, an immense number of paper lamps fell
from it. When they left the box they were all neatly folded; but in
falling they opened by degrees and sprung one out of the other. Each
then assumed a regular form, and suddenly a beautifully coloured light
appeared. The Chinese seemed to understand the art of shaping the
fireworks at their fancy. On either side of the large boxes were
smaller ones, which opened in a similar manner, letting fall burning
torches, of different shapes, as brilliant as burnished copper, and
flashing like lightning at each movement of the wind. The display
ended with the eruption of an artificial volcano."
It is the usual custom for the Emperor of China to conclude his
birthday festivities by hunting in the forests of Tartary; but in the
present case advancing age rendered that diversion unwise, and his
Majesty decided to return to Pekin, the English embassy being invited
to precede him thither.
Macartney, however, felt that it was time to terminate his mission. In
the first place, it was not customary for ambassadors to reside long
at the Chinese court; and in the second, the fact that the Chinese
emperor defrayed the expenses of the embassy naturally induced him to
curtail his stay. In a short time he received from Tchien Lung the
reply to the letter of the King of England, and the presents intended
for the English monarch, as well as a number for the members of his
suite. This Macartney rightly interpreted as his -congé-!
The English went back to Tong Chou Fou by way of the imperial canal.
Upon this trip they saw the famous bird "Leutzé," fishing for its
master. It is a species of cormorant, and is so well trained that it
is unnecessary to place either a cord or ring round its neck to
prevent it from swallowing any of its prey.
"Upon every boat or raft there are ten or twelve of these birds, ready
to plunge the instant they receive a sign from their masters. It is
curious to see them catch enormous fish, and carry them in their
beaks."
[Illustration: "The famous bird Leutzé."]
Macartney mentions a singular manner of catching wild ducks and other
water-birds. Empty jars and calabashes are allowed to float upon the
water for several days, until the birds are accustomed to the sight of
them. A man then enters the water, places one of the jars upon his
head, and advancing gently, seizes the feet of any bird which allows
him to come near enough: he rapidly immerses it in the water to choke
it, and then noiselessly continues his search until his bag is full.
The embassy visited Canton and Macao, and thence returned to England.
We need not dwell upon the return voyage.
We must now consider that portion of Asia which may be called the
interior. The first traveller to be noticed is Volney.
Every one knows, by repute at least, his book on Ruins; but his
account of his adventures in Egypt and Syria far surpasses it. There
is nothing exaggerated in the latter; it is written in a quiet,
precise manner, and is one of the most instructive of books. The
members of the Egyptian Expedition refer to it as containing exact
statements as to climate, the productions of the soil, and the manners
of the inhabitants.
Volney prepared himself most carefully for the journey, which was a
great undertaking for him. He determined to leave nothing to chance,
and upon reaching Syria he realized that he could not possibly acquire
the knowledge of the country he desired unless he first made himself
acquainted with the language of the people. He therefore retired to
the monastery of Mar-Hannd, in Libiya, and devoted himself to the
study of Arabic.
Later on, in order to learn something of the life led by the wandering
tribes of the Arabian desert, he joined company with a sheik, and
accustomed himself to the use of a lance, and to live on horseback,
thus qualifying himself to accompany the tribes in their excursions.
Under their protection he visited the ruins of Palmyra and Baalbec,
cities of the dead, known to us only by name.
"His style of writing," says La Beuve, "is free from exaggeration, and
marked by singular exactness and propriety. When, for example, he
wishes to illustrate the quality of the Egyptian soil, and in what
respect it differs from that of Africa, he speaks of 'this black,
light, greasy earth,' which is brought up and deposited by the Nile.
When he wishes to describe the warm winds of the desert, with their
dry heat, he compares them 'to the impression which one receives upon
opening a fierce oven to take out the bread;' according to his
description, speaking of the fitful winds, he says they are not merely
laden with fog, but gritty and powdery, and in reality full of fine
dust, which penetrates everything; and of the sun, he says it
'presents to view but an obscured disk.'"
If such an expression may be used in speaking of a rigid statement of
facts, Volney attained to true beauty of expression--to an actual
physical beauty, so to speak, recalling the touch of Hippocrates in
his "De Aere, Aquis et Locis." Although no geographical discoveries
can be imputed to him, we must none the less recognize in him one of
the first travellers who had a true conception of the importance of
their task. His aim was always to give a true impression of the places
he visited; and this in itself was no small merit, at a time when
other explorers did not hesitate to enliven their narratives with
imaginary details, with no recognition whatever of their true
responsibility.
The Abbé Barthélemy, who in 1788 was to publish his "Voyage du jeune
Anacharsis," was already exercising a good deal of influence on public
taste, by his popularity in society and position as a man of science,
and drawing special attention to Greece and the neighbouring countries.
It was evidently whilst attending his lessons that De Choiseul imbibed
his love for history and archæology.
Nominated ambassador at Constantinople, De Choiseul determined to
profit by the leisure he enjoyed in travelling as an artist and
archæologist through the Greece of Homer and Herodotus. Such a journey
was the very thing to complete the education of the young ambassador,
who was only twenty-four years of age, and if he knew himself, could
not be said to have any acquaintance with the ways of the world.
Sensible of his shortcomings, he surrounded himself with learned and
scientific men, amongst them the Abbé Barthélemy, the Greek scholar,
Ansse de Villoison, the poet Delille, the sculptor Fauvel, and the
painter Cassas. In fact, in his "Picturesque History of Greece" he
himself merely plays the -rôle- of Mæcenas.
M. de Choiseul Gouffier engaged as private secretary a professor, the
Abbé Jean-Baptiste Le Chevalier, who spoke Greek fluently. The latter,
after a journey to London, where M. de Choiseul's business detained
him long enough for him to learn English, went to Italy, and was
detained at Venice by severe illness for seven months. After this he
joined M. de Choiseul Gouffier at Constantinople.
Le Chevalier occupied himself principally with the site of Troy. Well
versed in the Iliad, he sought for, and believed he identified, the
various localities mentioned in the Homeric poem.
His able geographical and historical book at once provoked plentiful
criticism. Upon the one side learned men, such as Bryant, declared the
discoveries made by Choiseul to be illusory, for the reason that Troy,
and, as a matter of course, the Ten Years Siege, existed only in the
imagination of the Greek poet; whilst others, and principally the
English portion of his critics, adopted his conclusions. The whole
question was almost forgotten, when the discoveries made quite
recently by Schliemann reopened the discussion.
Guillaume-Antoine Olivier, who traversed the greater portion of the
Western hemisphere, at the end of the last century, had a strange
career. Employed by Berthier de Sauvigny to translate a statistical
paper on Paris, he lost his patron and the payment for his labours in
the first outburst of the Revolution. Wishing to employ his talent for
natural history away from Paris, he was nominated, by the minister
Roland, to a mission to the distant and little-known portions of the
Ottoman Empire. A naturalist, named Bruguère, was associated with him.
The two friends left Paris at the end of 1792, and were delayed for
four months at Versailles, until a suitable ship was found for them.
They only reached Constantinople at the end of the following May,
carrying letters relating to their mission to M. de Semonville. But
this ambassador had been recalled, and his successor, M. de Sainte
Croix had heard nothing of their undertaking. What was the best thing
to do whilst awaiting the reply to the inquiries sent to Paris by M.
de Sainte Croix?
The two friends could not remain inactive. They therefore decided to
visit the shores of Asia Minor, and some islands in the Egyptian
Archipelago.
The French minister had excellent reasons for not supplying them with
much money, and their own resources being limited, they were unable to
do more than make a flying visit to these interesting countries.
Upon their return to Constantinople they found a new ambassador, named
Verninac, who had received instructions to send them to Persia, where
they were to endeavour to awaken the sympathy of the government for
France, and to induce it to declare war against Russia.
At this time the most deplorable anarchy reigned in Persia. Usurpers
succeeded each other upon the throne, to the great detriment of the
welfare of the inhabitants. War was going on in Khorassan at the time
that Olivier and Bruguère arrived. An opportunity occurred for them to
join the shah in a country as yet unvisited by any European; but
unfortunately Bruguère was in such bad health that they were not only
forced to lose the chance, but were detained for four months in an
obscure village buried amongst the mountains.
In September, 1796, Mehemet returned to Teheran. His first act was to
order a hundred Russian sailors whom he had taken prisoners on the
Caspian Sea, to be put to death, and their limbs to be nailed outside
his palace walls--a disgusting trophy worthy of the butcher tyrant.
The following year Mehemet Ali was assassinated, and his nephew,
Fehtah-Ali Shah, succeeded him, after a short struggle.
It was difficult for Olivier to discharge his mission with this
constant change of reigning sovereigns. He was forced to renew his
negotiations with each succeeding prince. Finally, the travellers,
realizing the impossibility of obtaining anything definite under such
circumstances, returned to Europe, and left the question of alliance
between France and Persia to a more favourable season. They stopped
upon their homeward journey at Bagdad, Ispahan, Aleppo, Cyprus, and
Constantinople.
Although this journey had been fruitless as regarded diplomacy, and
had contributed no new discovery to geography, Cuvier, in his eulogy
of Olivier, assures us that, so far as natural history was concerned,
much had been achieved. This may be the better credited, as Olivier
was elected to the Institute as the successor to Daubenton.
Cuvier, in academic style, says that the narrative of the voyage
published, in three quarto volumes, was warmly received by the public.
"It has been said," he continues, "that it might have been of greater
interest if the censor had not eliminated certain portions; but
allusions were found throughout the whole volume, which were
inadmissible, as it does not do to say all we know, especially of
Thamas Kouli Khan.
"M. Olivier had no greater regard for his assertions than for his
fortune; he quietly omitted all that he was told to leave out, and
restricted himself to a quiet and simple account of what he had seen."
A journey from Persia to Russia is not difficult; and was less so in
the eighteenth century than to-day. As a matter of fact, Russia only
became an European power in the days of Peter the Great. Until the
reign of that monarch she had been in every particular--manners,
customs, and inhabitants--Asiatic. With Peter the Great and Catherine
II., however, commerce revived, high roads were made, the navy was
created, and the various tribes became united into one nation.
The empire was vast from the first, and conquest has added to its
extent. Peter the Great ordered the compilation of charts, sent
expeditions round the coast to collect particulars as to the climate,
productions, and races of the different provinces of his empire; and
at length he sent Behring upon the voyage which resulted in the
discovery of the straits bearing his name.
The example of the great emperor was followed by his successor,
Catherine II. She attracted learned men to her court, and corresponded
with the savants of the whole world. She succeeded in impressing the
nations with a favourable idea of her subjects. Interest and curiosity
were awakened, and the eyes of Western Europe were fixed upon Russia.
It became recognized that a great nation was arising, and many doubts
were entertained as to the result upon European interests. Prussia had
already changed the balance of power in Europe, by her victories under
Frederick II.; Russia possessed resources of her own, not only in men,
but in silver and riches of every kind--still unknown or untested.
Thus it came to pass that publications concerning that country
possessed an attraction for politicians, and those interested in the
welfare of their country, as well as for the scientific men to whom
descriptions of manners and customs foreign to their experience were
always welcome.
No work had hitherto excelled that of the naturalist Pallas, which was
translated into French between 1788-1793. It was a narrative of a
journey across several provinces of the Russian empire. The success of
this publication was well deserved.
Peter Simon Pallas was a German naturalist, who had been summoned to
St. Petersburg by Catherine II. in 1668, and elected by her a member
of the Academy of Sciences. She understood the art of enlisting him in
her service by her favours. Pallas, in acknowledgment of them,
published his account of fossil remains in Siberia. England and France
had just sent expeditions to observe the transit of Venus. Russia, not
to be behindhand, despatched a party of learned men, of whom Pallas
was one, to Siberia.
Seven astronomers and geometers, five naturalists, and a large number
of pupils, made up the party, which was thoroughly to explore the
whole of the vast territory.
For six whole years Pallas devoted himself to the successive
explorations of Orenburg upon the Jaik, the rendezvous of the nomad
tribes who wander upon the shores of the Caspian Sea; Gouriel, which
is situated upon the borders of the great lake which is now drying up;
the Ural Mountains, with their numberless iron-mines; Tobolsk, the
capital of Siberia; the province of Koliwan, upon the northern slopes
of the Atlas; Krasnojarsk, upon the Jenissei; and the immense lake of
Bakali, and Daouria, on the frontiers of China. He also visited
Astrakan; the Caucasus, with its varied and interesting inhabitants;
and finally, he explored the Don, returning to St. Petersburg on the
30th of July, 1774.
It may well be believed that Pallas was no ordinary traveller. He was
not merely a naturalist; he was interested in everything that affects
humanity; geography, history, politics, commerce, religion, science,
art, all occupied his attention; and it is impossible to read his
narrative without admiring his enlightened patriotism, or without
recognizing the penetration of the sovereign who understood the art of
securing his services.
When his narrative was once arranged, written, and published, Pallas
had no idea of contenting himself with the laurels he had gained. Work
was his recreation, and he found occupation in assisting in the
compilation of a map of Russia.
His natural inclinations led him to the study of botany, and by his
works upon that subject he obtained a distinctive place among Russian
naturalists.
One of his later undertakings was a description of Southern Russia, a
physical and topographical account of the province of Taurius--a work
which, originally published in French, was afterwards translated into
English and German.
Delighted with this country, which he had visited in 1793-94, he
desired to settle there. The empress bestowed some of the crown lands
upon him, and he transported his family to Simpheropol.
Pallas profited by the opportunity to undertake a new journey in the
northern provinces of the empire, the Steppes of the Volga, and the
countries which border the Caspian Sea as far as the Caucasus. He then
explored the Crimea. He had seen parts of the country twenty years
before, and he now found great changes. Although he complains of the
devastation of the forests, he commends the increase of agricultural
districts, and the centres of industries which had been created. The
Crimea is known to be considerably improved since that time--it is
impossible to foresee what it may yet become.
Enthusiastic though he was at first in his admiration of this province,
Pallas was exposed to every kind of treachery on the part of the
Tartars. His wife died in the Crimea; and finally, disgusted with the
country and its inhabitants, he returned to Breton to end his days. He
died there on the 8th of September, 1811.
He left two important works, from which naturalists, geographers,
statesmen, and merchants, were able to gather much trustworthy
information upon countries then but little known, and the commodities
and resources of which were destined to have a large influence over
European markets.
CHAPTER IV.
THE TWO AMERICAS.
The western coast of America--Juan de Fuca and De Fonte--The three
voyages of Behring and Tschirikow--Exploration of the straits of De
Fuca--Survey of the Archipelago of New Georgia and of part of the
American coast--Exploration of the interior of America--Samuel Hearn--
Discovery of the Coppermine river--Mackenzie, and the river named
after him--Fraser river--South America--Survey of the Amazon by
Condamine--Journey of Humboldt and Bonpland--Teneriffe--The Guachero
cavern--The "Llaños"--The Electric eels--The Amazon, Negro, and
Orinoco rivers--The earth-eaters--Results of the journey--Humboldt's
second journey--The "Volcanitos," or little volcanoes--The cascade at
Tequendama--The bridge of Icononzo--Crossing the Brindisi on men's
backs--Pinto and Pinchincha--Ascent of Chimborazo--The Andes--Lima--
The transit of Mercury--Exploration of Mexico--Puebla and Cofre de
Perote--Return to Europe.
We have more than once had occasion to speak of expeditions for the
survey of the coasts of America. We have told of the attempts of
Fernando Cortes and of the voyages and explorations of Drake, Cook, La
Perouse, and Marchand. It will be well now to go back for a time, and
with Fleurieu sum up the series of voyages along the western coast of
America, to the close of the eighteenth century.
[Illustration: Map of North-West America.]
In 1537, Cortes with Francisco de Ulloa, discovered the huge peninsula
of California, and sailed over the greater part of the long and narrow
strait now known as the Vermilion Sea.
He was succeeded by Vasquez Coronado and Francisco Alarcon, who--the
former by sea, and the latter by land--devoted themselves to seeking
the channel which was erroneously supposed to connect the Atlantic and
Pacific. They did not, however, penetrate beyond 36 degrees N. lat.
Two years later, in 1542, the Portuguese Rodrique de Cabrillo, reached
44 degrees N. lat., where the intense cold, sickness, want of
provisions, and the bad state of his vessel, compelled him to turn
back. He made no actual discovery, but he ascertained that, from Port
Natividad to the furthest point reached by him, the coast-line was
unbroken. The channel of communication seemed to recede before all
explorers.
The little success met with appears to have discouraged the Spaniards,
for at this time they retired from the ranks of the explorers. It was
an Englishman, Drake, who, after having sailed along the western coast
as far as the Straits of Magellan, and devastated the Spanish
possessions, reached the forty-eighth degree, explored the whole coast,
and, returning the same way, gave to the vast districts included
within ten degrees the name of New Albion.
Next came, in 1592, the greatly fabulous voyage of Juan de Fuca, who
claimed to have found the long-sought Strait of Anian, when he had but
found the channel dividing Vancouver's Island from the mainland.
In 1602 Viscaino laid the foundations of Port Monterey in California,
and forty years later took place that much contested voyage of Admiral
De Fuente, or De Fonte according as one reckons him a Spaniard or a
Portuguese, which has been the text of so many learned discussions and
ingenious suppositions. To him we owe the discovery of the Archipelago
of St. Lazarus above Vancouver's Island; but all that he says about
the lakes and large towns he claims to have visited must be relegated
to the realms of romance, as well as his assertion that he discovered
a communication between the two oceans.
[Illustration: Port Monterey. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
In the eighteenth century the assertions of travellers were no longer
blindly accepted. They were examined and sifted, those parts only
being believed which accorded with the well authenticated accounts of
others. Buache, Delisle, and above all Fleurieu, inaugurated the
prolific literature of historical criticism, and we have every reason
to be grateful to them.
The Russians, as we know, had greatly extended the field of their
knowledge, and there was every reason to suppose that their hunters
and Cossacks would soon reach America, if, as was then believed, the
two continents were connected in the north. But from such
unprofessional travellers no trustworthy scientific details could be
expected.
A few years before his death the Emperor Peter I. drew up, with his
own hands, a plan of an expedition, with instructions to its members,
which he had long had in view, for ascertaining whether Asia and
America are united, or separated by a strait.
The arsenal and forts of Kamtchatka being unable to supply the
necessary men, stores, &c., captains, sailors, equipment, and
provisions, had to be imported from Europe.
Vitus Behring, a Dane, and Alexis Tschirikow, a Russian, who had both
given many a proof of skill and knowledge, were appointed to the
command of the expedition, which consisted of two vessels built at
Kamtchatka. They were not ready to put to sea until July 20th, 1720.
Steering north-east along the coast of Asia, of which he never for a
moment lost sight, Behring discovered, on the 15th August, in 67
degrees 18 minutes N. lat. a cape beyond which the coast stretched
away westwards.
In this first voyage Behring did not apparently see the coast of
America, though he probably passed through the strait to which
posterity has given his name. The fabulous strait of Anian gave place
to Behring Straits. A second voyage made by the same explorers the
following year was without results.
Not until June 4th, 1741, were Behring and Tschirikow in a position to
start again. This time they meant to bear to the east after reaching
50 degrees N. lat. till they should come to the coast of America; but
the two vessels were separated in a gale of wind on the 28th August,
and were unable to find each other again throughout the trip. On the
18th July Behring discerned the American continent in 58 degrees 28
minutes N. lat. and the succeeding days were devoted to the survey of
the vast bay between Capes St. Elias and St. Hermogenes.
Behring spent the whole of August in sailing about the islands known
as the Schumagin archipelago, off the peninsula of Alaska; and after a
struggle, lasting until the 24th September, with contrary winds, he
sighted the most southerly cape of the peninsula, and discovered part
of the Aleutian group.
Exhausted by long illness, however, the explorer was now no longer
able to direct the course of his vessel, and could not prevent her
from running aground on the little island bearing his name. There, on
the 8th December, 1741, this brave man and skilful explorer perished
miserably.
The remnant of his crew who survived the fatigues and privations of
winter in this desolate spot, succeeded in making a large sloop of the
remains of the vessel, in which they returned to Kamtchatka.
Meanwhile Tschirikow, after waiting for his superior officer until the
25th June, made land between 55 degrees 56 minutes N. lat., where he
lost two boats with their crews, without being able to find out what
had become of them. Unable after this catastrophe to open
communication with the natives, he went back to Kamtchatka.
The way was now open, and adventurers, merchants, and naval officers
eagerly rushed in, directing their efforts carefully to the Aleutian
Islands and the peninsula of Alaska.
The expeditions sent out by the English, and the progress made by the
Russians, had, however, aroused the jealousy and anxiety of the
Spanish, who feared lest their rivals should establish themselves in a
country nominally belonging to Spain, though she owned not a single
colony in it.
The Viceroy of Mexico now remembered the discovery of an excellent
port by Viscaino, and resolved to found a "presidio" there. Two
expeditions started simultaneously, the one by land, under Don Gaspar
de Partola, the other by sea, consisting of two packets, the -San
Carlos- and -San Antonio-, and after a year's search found again the
harbour of Monterey, alluded to by Viscaino.
After this expedition the Spanish continued the exploration of the
Californian coast. The most celebrated voyages were those of Don Juan
de Ayala and of La Bodega, which took place in 1775, and resulted in
the discovery of Cape Engano and Guadalupe Bay. Next to these rank the
expeditions of Arteaga and Maurelle.
We have already related what was done by Cook, La Pérouse, and
Marchand, so we can pass on to say a few words on the expeditions of
Vancouver. This officer, who had accompanied Cook on his second and
third voyage, was naturally appointed to the command of the expedition
sent out by the English government with a view to settling the
disputes with the Spanish government as to Nootka Sound.
George Vancouver was commissioned to obtain from the Spanish
authorities the formal cession of this great harbour, of such vast
importance to the fur trade. He was then to survey the whole of the
north-west coast, from 30 degrees N. lat. to Cook's River in 61
degrees N. lat. Lastly, he was to give special attention to the
Straits of De Fuca and the bay explored in 1749 by the -Washington-.
The two vessels, the -Discovery- of 340 tons, and the -Chatham- of
135--the latter under the command of Captain Broughton--left Falmouth
on the 1st of April, 1791. After touching at Teneriffe, Simon Bay, and
the Cape of Good Hope, Vancouver steered south-wards, sighted St.
Paul's Island, and sailed towards New Holland, between the routes
taken by Dampier and Marion, and through latitudes which had not yet
been traversed. On the 27th September was sighted part of the coast of
New Holland, ending in abrupt and precipitous cliffs, to which the
name of Cape Chatham was given. As many of his crew were down with
dysentery, Vancouver decided to anchor in the first harbour he came to,
to get water, wood, and above all provisions, of which he stood sorely
in need. Port George III. was the first reached, where ducks, curlews,
swans, fish, and oysters abounded; but no communication could be
opened with the natives, although a recently abandoned village of some
twenty huts was seen.
We need not follow Vancouver in his cruise along the south-west coast
of Holland, as we shall learn nothing new from it.
On the 28th November Van Diemen's Land was doubled, and on the 2nd
December the coast of New Zealand was reached and anchor cast by the
two vessels in Dusky Bay. Here Vancouver completed the survey left
unfinished by Cook. A gale soon separated the -Discovery- from the
-Chatham-, which was found again in Matavai Bay, Tahiti. During the
voyage there from Dusky Bay, Vancouver discovered some rocky islands,
which he called the Snares, and a large island named Oparra, whilst
Captain Broughton had discovered Chatham Island, on the east of New
Zealand. The incidents of the stay at Tahiti resemble those of Cook's
story too closely for repetition.
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