Tiberias, which was in ruins, and whose celebrated baths were
completely destroyed, Ibn Batuta was attracted by the wonders of
Lebanon, the centre for all the hermits of that day, who had
judiciously chosen one of the most lovely spots in the whole world
wherein to end their days. Then passing Baalbec, and going on to
Damascus, he found the city (in the year 1345) decimated by the
plague. This fearful scourge devoured "24,000 persons daily," if we
may believe his report, and Damascus would have been depopulated,
had not the prayers of all the people offered up in the mosque
containing the stone with the print of Moses' foot upon it, been
heard and answered. On leaving Damascus, Ibn Batuta went to Mesjid,
where he visited the tomb of Ali, which attracts a large number of
paralytic pilgrims who need only to spend one night in prayer beside
it, to be completely cured. Batuta does not seem to doubt the
authenticity of this miracle, well known in the East under the title
of "the Night of Cure."
From Mesjid, the traveller went to Bussorah, and entered the kingdom
of Ispahan, and then the province of Shiraz, where he wished to
converse with the celebrated worker of miracles, Magd Oddin. From
Shiraz he went to Baghdad, to Tabriz, then to Medina, where he
prayed beside the tomb of the Prophet, and finally to Mecca, where
he remained three years. It is well known that from Mecca, caravans
are continually starting for the surrounding country, and it was in
company with some of these bold merchants that Ibn Batuta was able
to visit the towns of Yemen. He went as far as Aden, at the mouth of
the Red Sea, and embarked for Zaila, one of the Abyssinian ports. He
was now once more on African ground, and advanced into the country
of the Berbers, that he might study the manners and customs of those
dirty and repulsive tribes; he found their diet consisted wholly of
fish and camels' flesh. But in the town of Makdasbu, there was an
attempt at comfort and civilization, presenting a most agreeable
contrast with the surrounding squalor. The inhabitants were very fat,
each of them, to use Ibn's own expression, "eating enough to feed a
convent;" they were very fond of delicacies, such as plantains
boiled in milk, preserved citrons, pods of fresh pepper, and green
ginger.
After seeing all he wished of the country of the Berbers, chiefly on
the coast, he resolved to go to Zanguebar, and then, crossing the
Red Sea and following the coast of Arabia, he came to Zafar, a town
situated upon the Indian Ocean. The vegetation of this country is
most luxuriant, the betel, cocoa-nut, and incense-trees forming
there great forests; still the traveller pushed on, and came to
Ormuz on the Persian Gulf, and passed through several provinces of
Persia. We find him a second time at Mecca in the year 1332, three
years after he had left it.
But this was only to be a short rest for the traveller, for now,
leaving Asia for Africa, he went to Upper Egypt, a region but little
known, and thence to Cairo. He next visited Syria, making a short
stay at Jerusalem and Tripoli, and thence he visited the Turkomans
of Anatolia, where the "confraternity of young men" gave him a most
hearty welcome.
After Anatolia, the Arabian narrative speaks of Asia Minor. Ibn
Batuta advanced as far as Erzeroum, where he was shown an aerolite
weighing 620 pounds. Then, crossing the Black Sea, he visited the
Crimea, Kaffa, and Bulgar, a town of sufficiently high latitude for
the unequal length of day and night to be very marked; and at last
he reached Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga, where the Khan of
Tartary lived during the winter months.
The Princess Bailun, the wife of the khan, and daughter of the
Emperor of Constantinople, was wishing to visit her father, and it
was an opportunity not to be lost by Ibn Batuta for exploring Turkey
in Europe; he gained permission to accompany the princess, who set
out attended by 5000 men, and followed by a portable mosque, which
was set up at every place where they stayed. The princess's
reception at Constantinople was very magnificent, the bells being
rung with such spirit that he says, "even the horizon seemed full of
the vibration."
The welcome given to the theologian by the princes of the country
was worthy of his fame; he remained in the city thirty-six days, so
that he was able to study it in all its details.
This was a time when communication between the different countries
was both dangerous and difficult, and Ibn Batuta was considered a
very bold traveller. Egypt, Arabia, Turkey in Asia, the Caucasian
provinces had all in turn been explored by him. After such hard work
he might well have taken rest and been satisfied with the laurels
that he had gained, for he was without doubt the most celebrated
traveller of the fourteenth century; but his insatiable passion for
travelling remained, and the circle of his explorations was still to
widen considerably.
On leaving Constantinople, Ibn Batuta went again to Astrakhan,
thence crossing the sandy wastes of the present Turkestan, he
arrived at Khovarezen, a large populous town, then at Bokhara, half
destroyed by the armies of Gengis-Khan. Some time after we hear of
him at Samarcand, a religious town which greatly pleased the learned
traveller, and then at Balkh which he could not reach without
crossing the desert of Khorassan. This town was all in ruins and
desolate, for the armies of the barbarians had been there, and Ibn
Batuta could not remain in it, but wished to go westward to the
frontier of Afghanistan. The mountainous country, near the Hindoo
Koosh range, confronted him, but this was no barrier to him, and
after great fatigue, which he bore with equal patience and
good-humour, he reached the important town of Herat. This was the
most westerly point reached by the traveller; he now resolved to
change his course for an easterly one, and in going to the extreme
limits of Asia, to reach the shores of the Pacific: if he could
succeed in this he would pass the bounds of the explorations of the
celebrated Marco Polo.
He set out, and following the course of the river Kabul and the
frontiers of Afghanistan, he came to the Sindhu, the modern Indus,
and descended it to its mouth. From the town of Lahore, he went to
Delhi, which great and beautiful city had been deserted by its
inhabitants, who had fled from the Emperor Mohammed.
This tyrant, who was occasionally both generous and magnificent,
received the Arabian traveller very well, made him a judge in Delhi,
and gave him a grant of land with some pecuniary advantages that
were attached to the post, but these honours were not to be of any
long duration, for Ibn Batuta being implicated in a pretended
conspiracy, thought it best to give up his place, and make himself a
fakir to escape the Emperor's displeasure. Mohammed, however,
pardoned him, and made him his ambassador to China.
Fortune again smiled upon the courageous traveller, and he had now
the prospect of seeing these distant lands under exceptionally good
and safe circumstances. He was charged with presents for the Emperor
of China, and 2000 horse-soldiers were given him as an escort.
But Ibn Batuta had not thought of the insurgents who occupied the
surrounding countries; a skirmish took place between the escort and
the Hindoos, and the traveller, being separated from his companions,
was taken prisoner, robbed, garotted, and carried off he knew not
whither; but his courage and hopefulness did not forsake him, and he
contrived to escape from the hands of these robbers. After wandering
about for seven days, he was received into his house by a negro, who
at length led him back to the emperor's palace at Delhi.
Mohammed fitted out another expedition, and again appointed the
Arabian traveller as his ambassador. This time they passed through
the enemy's country without molestation, and by way of Kanoje, Mersa,
Gwalior, and Barun, they reached Malabar. Some time after, they
arrived at the great port of Calicut, an important place which
became afterwards the chief town of Malabar; here they were detained
by contrary winds for three months, and made use of this time to
study the Chinese mercantile marine which frequented this port. Ibn
speaks with great admiration of these junks which are like floating
gardens, where ginger and herbs are grown on deck; they are each
like a separate village, and some merchants were the possessors of a
great number of these junks.
At last the wind changed; Ibn Batuta chose a small junk well fitted
up, to take him to China, and had all his property put on board.
Thirteen other junks were to receive the presents sent by the King
of Delhi to the Emperor of China, but during the night a violent
storm arose, and all the vessels sank. Fortunately for Ibn he had
remained on shore to attend the service at the mosque, and thus his
piety saved his life, but he had lost everything except "the carpet
which he used at his devotions." After this second misfortune he
could not make up his mind to appear before the King of Delhi. This
catastrophe was enough to weary the patience of a more
long-suffering emperor than Mohammed.
Ibn soon made up his mind what to do. Leaving the service of the
emperor, and the advantages attaching to the post of ambassador, he
embarked for the Maldive Islands, which were governed by a woman,
and where a large trade in cocoa was carried on. Here he was again
made a judge, but this was only of short duration, for the vizier
became jealous of his success, and, after marrying three wives, Ibn
was obliged to take refuge in flight. He hoped to reach the
Coromandel coast, but contrary winds drove his vessel towards Ceylon,
where he was very well received, and gained the king's permission to
climb the sacred mountain of Serendid, or Adam's Peak. His object
was to see the wonderful impression of a foot at the summit, which
the Hindoos call "Buddha's," and the Mahometans "Adam's, foot." He
pretends, in his narrative, that this impression measures eleven
hands in length, a very different account from that of an historian
of the ninth century, who declared it to be seventy-nine cubits
long! This historian also adds that while one of the feet of our
forefather rested on the mountain, the other was in the Indian ocean.
Ibn Batuta speaks also of large bearded apes, forming a considerable
item in the population of the island, and said to be under a king of
their own, crowned with leaves. We can give what credit we like to
such fables as these, which were propagated by the credulity of the
Hindoos.
From Ceylon, the traveller made his way to the Coromandel coast, but
not without experiencing some severe storms. He crossed to the other
side of the Indian peninsula, and again embarked.
[Illustration: Ibn Batuta's vessel was seized by pirates.]
But his vessel was seized by pirates, and Ibn Batuta arrived at
Calicut almost without clothes, robbed, and worn out with fatigue.
No misfortune could damp his ardour, his was one of those great
spirits which seem only invigorated by trouble and disasters. As
soon as he was enabled by the kindness of some Delhi merchants to
resume his travels, he embarked for the Maldive Islands, went on to
Bengal, there set sail for Sumatra, and disembarked at one of the
Nicobar Islands after a very bad passage which had lasted fifty days.
Fifteen days afterwards he arrived at Sumatra, where the king gave
him a hearty welcome and furnished him with means to continue his
journey to China.
A junk took him in seventy-one days to the port Kailuka, capital of
a country somewhat problematical, of which the brave and handsome
inhabitants excelled in making arms. From Kailuka, Ibn passed into
the Chinese provinces, and went first to the splendid town of Zaitem,
probably the present Tsieun-tcheou of the Chinese, a little to the
north of Nankin. He passed through various cities of this great
empire, studying the customs of the people and admiring everywhere
the riches, industry, and civilization that he found, but he did not
get as far as the Great Wall, which he calls "The obstacle of Gog
and Magog." It was while he was exploring this immense tract of
country that he made a short stay in the city of Tchensi, which is
composed of six fortified towns standing together. It happened that
during his wanderings he was able to be present at the funeral of a
khan, who was buried with four slaves, six of his favourites, and
four horses.
In the meanwhile, disturbances had occurred at Zaitem, which obliged
Ibn to leave this town, so he set sail for Sumatra, and then after
touching at Calicut and Ormuz, he returned to Mecca in 1348, having
made the tour of Persia and Syria.
But the time of rest had not yet come for this indefatigable
explorer; the following year he revisited his native place Tangier,
and then after travelling in the southern countries of Europe he
returned to Morocco, went to Soudan and the countries watered by the
Niger, crossed the Great Desert and entered Timbuctoo, thus making a
journey which would have rendered illustrious a less ambitious
traveller.
This was to be his last expedition. In 1353, twenty-nine years after
leaving Tangier for the first time, he returned to Morocco, and
settled at Fez. He has earned the reputation of being the most
intrepid explorer of the fourteenth century, and well merits to be
ranked next after Marco Polo, the illustrious Venetian.
CHAPTER VI.
JEAN DE BÉTHENCOURT, 1339-1425.
I.
The Norman cavalier--His ideas of conquest--What was known of
the Canary Islands--Cadiz--The Canary Archipelago--Graciosa--
Lancerota--Fortaventura--Jean de Béthencourt returns to Spain--
Revolt of Berneval--His interview with King Henry III.--Gadifer
visits the Canary Archipelago--Canary Island or "Gran Canaria"--
Ferro Island--Palma Island.
Jean de Béthencourt was born about the year 1339, at Eu in Normandy.
He was of good family, and Baron of St. Martin-le-Gaillard, and had
distinguished himself both as a navigator and warrior; he was made
chamberlain to Charles VI. But his tastes were more for travelling
than a life at court; he resolved to make himself a still more
illustrious name by further conquests, and soon an opportunity
offered for him to carry out his plans.
[Illustration: Jean de Béthencourt.]
On the coast of Africa there is a group of islands called the
Canaries, which were once known as the Fortunate Islands. Juba, a
son of one of the Numidian kings, is said to have been their first
explorer, about the year of Rome 776. In the middle ages, according
to some accounts, Arabs, Genoese, Portuguese, Spaniards, and
Biscayans, had partially visited this interesting group of islands.
In 1393, a Spanish gentleman named Almonaster, who was commanding an
expedition, succeeded in landing on Lancerota, one of these islands,
and brought back, with several prisoners, some produce which was a
sufficient guarantee of the fertility of this archipelago.
The Norman cavalier now found the opening that he sought, and he
determined to conquer the Canary Islands and try to convert the
inhabitants to the Catholic faith. He was as intelligent, brave, and
full of resources as he was energetic; and leaving his house of
Grainville-la-Teinturière at Caux, he went to La Rochelle, where he
met the Chevalier Gadifer de la Salle, and having explained his
project to him, they decided to go to the Canary Islands together.
Jean de Béthencourt having collected an army and made his
preparations, and had vessels fitted out and manned, Gadifer and he
set sail; after experiencing adverse winds on the way to the Ile de
Ré, and being much harassed by the constant dissensions on board,
they arrived at Vivero, and then at Corunna. Here they remained
eight days, then set sail again, and doubling Cape Finisterre,
followed the Portuguese coast to Cape St. Vincent, and arrived at
Cadiz, where they made a longer stay. Here Béthencourt had a dispute
with some Genoese merchants, who accused him of having taken their
vessel, and he had to go to Seville, where King Henry III. heard his
complaint and acquitted him from all blame. On his return to Cadiz
he found part of his crew in open mutiny, and some of his sailors so
frightened that they refused to continue the voyage, so the
chevalier sent back the cowardly sailors, and set sail with those
who were more courageous.
The vessel in which Jean de Béthencourt sailed was becalmed for
three days, then, the weather improving, he reached the island of
Graziosa, one of the smaller of the Canary group, in five days, and
then the larger island of Lancerota, which is nearly the same size
as the island of Rhodes. Lancerota has excellent pasturage, and
arable land, which is particularly good for the cultivation of
barley; its numerous fountains and cisterns are well supplied with
excellent water. The orchilla, which is so much used in dyeing,
grows abundantly here. The inhabitants of this island, who as a rule
wear scarce any clothing, are tall and well-made, and the women, who
wear leathern great-coats reaching to the ground, are very
good-looking and honest.
The traveller, prior to disclosing his plans of conquest, wished to
possess himself of some of the natives, but his ignorance of the
country made this a difficult matter, so, anchoring under the
shelter of a small island in the archipelago, he called a meeting of
his companions to decide upon a plan of action. They all agreed that
the only thing to be done was to take some of the natives by fair
means or foul. Guardafia, the king of the island, treated
Béthencourt more as a friend than a subject. A castle or rather fort
was built at the south-western extremity of the island, and some men
left there under the command of Berthin de Berneval, while
Béthencourt set out with the rest of his followers for the island of
Erbania or Fortaventura. Gadifer counselled a debarcation by night,
which was done, and then he took the command of a small body of men
and scoured the island with them for eight days without meeting one
native, they having all fled to the mountains. Provisions failing,
Gadifer was forced to return, and he went to the island of Lobos
between Lancerota and Fortaventura; but there his chief sailor
mutinied and it was not without difficulty that Gadifer and
Béthencourt reached the fort on Lancerota.
Béthencourt resolved to return to Spain to get provisions and a new
contingent of soldiers, for his crew he could not depend upon; so he
left Gadifer in command and set sail for Spain in one of Gadifer's
ships.
It will be remembered that Berthin de Berneval had been left in
command of the fort on Lancerota Island. Unfortunately he was
Gadifer's bitter enemy, and no sooner had Béthencourt set out than
he tried to poison the minds of Gadifer's men against him; he
succeeded in inducing some, especially the Gascons, to revolt
against the governor, who, quite innocent of Berneval's base designs,
was spending his time hunting sea-wolves on the island of Lobos with
Remonnet de Levéden and several others. Remonnet having been sent to
Lancerota for provisions, found no Berneval there, he having
deserted the island with his accomplices for a port on Graziosa,
where a coxswain, deceived by his promises, had placed his vessel at
his disposal. From Graziosa, the traitor Berneval returned to
Lancerota, and put the finishing stroke to his villany by pretending
to make an alliance with the king of the island. The king, thinking
that no officer of Béthencourt's, in whom he had implicit confidence,
could deceive him, came with twenty-four of his subjects to see
Berneval, who seized them when asleep, had them bound, and then
carried them off to Graziosa. The king managed to break his bonds,
set three of his men free, and succeeded in escaping, but the
remainder of his unfortunate companions were still prisoners, and
Berneval gave them up to some Spanish thieves, who took them away to
sell in a foreign land.
Berneval's evil deeds did not stop here. By his order the vessel
that Gadifer had sent to the fort at Lancerota was seized; Remonnet
tried resistance, but his numbers were too small, and his
supplications were useless to prevent Berneval's men, and even
Berneval himself, from destroying all the arms, furniture, and goods,
which Béthencourt had placed in the fort at Lancerota. Insults were
showered upon the governor, and Berneval cried, "I should like
Gadifer de la Salle to know that if he were as young as I, I would
kill him, but as he is not, I will spare him. If he is put above me
I shall have him drowned, and then he can fish for sea-wolves."
Meanwhile, Gadifer and his ten companions were in danger of
perishing on the island of Lobos for want of food and fresh water,
but happily the two chaplains of the fort of Lancerota had gone to
Graziosa, and met the coxswain, who had been the victim of
Berneval's treason, and he sent one of his men named Ximenes with
them back to Lancerota. There they found a small boat which they
filled with provisions, and embarking with four men who were
faithful to Gadifer, they succeeded in reaching Lobos, four leagues
off, after a most dangerous passage.
Gadifer and his companions were suffering fearfully from hunger and
thirst, when Ximenes arrived just in time to save them from
perishing, and the governor learning Berneval's treachery embarked
in the boat for Lancerota, as soon as he was a little restored to
health. He was grieved at Berneval's conduct towards the poor
islanders whom Béthencourt and he had sworn to protect. No! he never
could have expected such wickedness in one who was looked upon as
the most able of the whole band.
But what was Berneval doing meanwhile? After having betrayed his
master, he did the same to the companions who had aided him in his
evil deeds; he had twelve of them killed and then he set out for
Spain to rejoin Béthencourt and make his own case good by
representing all that had happened in his own way. It was to his
interest to get rid of inconvenient witnesses, and therefore he
abandoned his companions. These unfortunate men at first meditated
imploring the pardon of the governor; they confessed all to the
chaplains, but then, fearing the consequences of their deeds, they
seized a boat and fled towards Morocco. The boat reached the coast
of Barbary, where ten of the crew were drowned and the two others
taken for slaves.
While all this was happening at Lancerota, Béthencourt arrived at
Cadiz, where he took strong measures against his mutinous crew, and
had the ringleaders imprisoned. Then he sent his vessel to Seville,
where King Henry III. was at that time; but the ship sank in the
Guadalquiver, a great loss to Gadifer, her owner.
Béthencourt having arrived at Seville, met a certain Francisque
Calve who had lately come from the Canaries, and who offered to
return thither with all the things needed by the governor, but
Béthencourt could not agree to this proposal before he had seen the
king.
Just at this time, Berneval arrived with some of his accomplices,
and some islanders whom he intended to sell as slaves. He hoped to
be able to deceive Béthencourt, but he had not reckoned upon a
certain Courtille who was with him, who lost no time in denouncing
the villany of Berneval, and on whose word the traitors were all
imprisoned at Cadiz. Courtille also told of the treatment that the
poor islanders had received; as Béthencourt could not leave Seville
till he had had an audience with the king, he gave orders that they
should receive every kindness, but while these preliminaries were
being concluded, the vessel that contained them was taken to Aragon,
and they were sold for slaves.
Béthencourt obtained the audience that he sought with the king of
Castille, and after telling him the result of his expedition he said,
"Sire, I come to ask your assistance and your leave to conquer the
Canary Islands for the Catholic faith, and as you are king and lord
of all the surrounding country, and the nearest Christian king to
these islands, I beg you to receive the homage of your humble
servant." The king was very gracious to him and gave him dominion
over these islands, and beyond this, a fifth of all the merchandise
that should be brought from them to Spain. He gave him 20,000
maravédis, about 600-l.-, to buy all that he needed, and also the
right to coin money in the Canary Islands. Most unfortunately these
20,000 maravédis were confided to the care of a dishonest man, who
fled to France, carrying the money with him.
However, Henry III. gave Béthencourt a well-rigged vessel manned by
eighty men, and stocked with provisions, arms, &c. He was most
grateful for this fresh bounty, and sent Gadifer an account of all
that had happened, and his extreme disappointment and disgust at
Berneval's conduct, in whom he had so much confidence, announcing at
the same time the speedy departure of the vessel given by the King
of Castille.
[Illustration: Plan of Jerusalem.]
But meanwhile very serious troubles had arisen on Lancerota. King
Guardafia was so hurt at Berneval's conduct that he had revolted,
and some of Gadifer's companions had been killed by the islanders.
Gadifer insisted upon these subjects being punished, when one of the
king's relations named Ache, came to him proposing to dethrone the
king, and put himself in his place. This Ache was a villain, who
after having betrayed his king, proposed to betray the Normans, and
to chase them from the country. Gadifer had no suspicion of his
motives; wishing to avenge the death of his men, he accepted Ache's
proposal, and a short time afterwards, on the vigil of St.
Catherine's day, the king was seized, and conveyed to the fort in
chains.
Some days afterwards, Ache, the new king of the island attacked
Gadifer's companions, mortally wounding several of them, but the
following night Guardafia having made his escape from the fort
seized Ache, had him stoned to death, and his body burnt. The
governor (Gadifer) was so grieved by these scenes of violence, which
were renewed daily, that he resolved to kill all the men on the
island, and save only the women and children, whom he hoped to have
baptized. But just at this time, the vessel that Béthencourt had
freighted for the governor arrived, and brought besides the eighty
men, provisions, &c., a letter which told him among other things
that Béthencourt had done homage to the King of Castille for the
Canary Islands. The governor was not well pleased at this news, for
he thought that he ought to have had his share in the islands; but
he concealed his displeasure, and gave the new comers a hearty
welcome.
The arms were at once disembarked, and then Gadifer went on board
the vessel to explore the neighbouring islands. Remonnet and several
others joined him in this expedition, and they took two of the
islanders with them to serve as guides.
They arrived safely at Fortaventura island; a few days after landing
on the island, Gadifer set out with thirty-five men to explore the
country; but soon the greater part of his followers deserted him,
only thirteen men, including two archers, remaining with him. But he
did not give up his project; after wading through a large stream, he
found himself in a lovely valley shaded by numberless palm-trees;
here having rested and refreshed himself, he set out again and
climbed a hill. At the summit he found about fifty natives, who
surrounded the small party and threatened to murder them. Gadifer
and his companions showed no signs of fear, and succeeded in putting
their enemies to flight; by the evening they were able to regain
their vessel, carrying away four of the native women as prisoners.
[Illustration: Gadifer found himself in a lovely valley.]
The next day Gadifer left the island and went to the Gran Canaria
island anchoring in a large harbour lying between Telde and Argonney.
Five hundred of the natives confronted them, but apparently with no
hostile intentions; they gave them some fish-hooks and old iron in
exchange for some of the natural productions of the island, such as
figs, and dragon's blood, a resinous substance taken from the
dragon-tree, which has a very pleasant balsamic odour. The natives
were very much on their guard with the strangers, for twenty years
before this some of Captain Lopez' men had invaded the island; so
they would not allow Gadifer to land.
The governor was obliged to weigh anchor without exploring the
island; he went to Ferro Island, and coasting along it arrived next
at Gomera; it was night, and the sailors were attracted by the fires
that the natives had lighted on the shore. When day broke Gadifer
and his companions wished to land; but the islanders would not allow
them to proceed when they reached the shore, and drove them back to
their vessel. Much disappointed by his reception, Gadifer determined
to make another attempt at Ferro Island; there he found that he
could land without opposition, and he remained on the island
twenty-two days. The interior of the island was very beautiful.
Pine-trees grew in abundance, and clear streams of water added to
its fertility. Quails were found in large numbers, as well as pigs,
goats, and sheep.
From this fertile island the party of explorers went to Palma, and
anchored in a harbour situated to the right of a large river. This
is the furthest island of the Canary group; it is covered with pine
and dragon-trees; from the abundance of fresh water the pasturage is
excellent and the land might be cultivated with much profit. Its
inhabitants are a tall, robust race, well made, with good features
and very white skin. Gadifer remained a short time on this island;
on leaving it he spent two days and two nights sailing round the
other islands, and then returned to the fort on Lancerota. They had
been absent three months. In the meantime, those of the party who
had been left in the fort had waged a petty war with the natives,
and had made a great number of prisoners. The Canarians, demoralized,
now came daily to cast themselves on their mercy, and to pray for
the consecration of baptism. Gadifer was so pleased to hear of this,
that he sent one of his companions to Spain to inform Béthencourt of
the state of the colony.
II.
JEAN DE BÉTHENCOURT.
The return of Jean de Béthencourt--Gadifer's jealousy--Béthencourt
visits his archipelago--Gadifer goes to conquer Gran Canaria--
Disagreement of the two commanders--Their return to Spain--Gadifer
blamed by the King--Return of Béthencourt--The natives of
Fortaventura are baptized--Béthencourt revisits Caux--Returns to
Lancerota--Lands on the African coast--Conquest of Gran Canaria,
Ferro, and Palma Islands--Maciot appointed Governor of the
archipelago--Béthencourt obtains the Pope's consent to the Canary
Islands being made an Episcopal See--His return to his country and
his death.
The envoy had not reached Cadiz when Béthencourt landed at the fort
on Lancerota. Gadifer gave him a hearty welcome, and so did the
Canary islanders who had been baptized. A few days afterwards, King
Guardafia came and threw himself on their mercy. He was baptized on
the 20th of February, 1404, with all his followers. Béthencourt's
chaplains drew up a very simple form of instruction for their use,
embracing the principal elements of Christianity, the creation, Adam
and Eve's fall, the history of Noah, the lives of the patriarchs,
the life of our Saviour and His crucifixion by the Jews, finishing
with an exhortation to believe the ten commandments, the Holy
Sacrament of the Altar, Easter, confession, and some other points.
Béthencourt was an ambitious man. Not content with having explored,
and so to speak, gained possession of the Canary Islands, he desired
to conquer the African countries bordering on the ocean. This was
his secret wish in returning to Lancerota, and meanwhile, he had
full occupation in establishing his authority in these islands, of
which he was only the nominal sovereign. He gave himself wholly to
the task, and first visited the islands which Gadifer had explored.
But before he set out, a conversation took place between Gadifer and
himself, which we must not omit to notice. Gadifer began boasting of
all he had done, and asked for the gift of Fortaventura, Teneriffe,
and Gomera Islands, as a recompense.
"My friend," replied Béthencourt, "the islands that you ask me to
give you are not yet conquered, but I do not intend you to be at any
loss for your trouble, nor that you should be unrequited; but let us
accomplish our project, and meanwhile remain the friends we have
always been."
"That is all very well," replied Gadifer, "but there is one point on
which I do not feel at all satisfied, and that is that you have done
homage to the King of Castille for these islands, and so you call
yourself absolute master over them."
"With regard to that," said Béthencourt, "I certainly have done
homage for them, and so I am their rightful master, but if you will
only patiently wait the end of our affair, I will give you what I
feel sure will quite content you."
"I shall not remain here," replied Gadifer, "I am going back to
France, and have no wish to be here any longer."
Upon this they separated, but Gadifer gradually cooled down and
agreed to accompany Béthencourt in his exploration of the islands.
They set out for Fortaventura well armed and with plenty of
provisions. They remained there three months, and began by seizing a
number of the natives, and sending them to Lancerota. This was such
a usual mode of proceeding at that time that we are less surprised
at it than we should be at the present day. The whole island was
explored and a fort named Richeroque built on the slope of a high
mountain; traces of it may still be found in a hamlet there.
Just at this time, and when he had scarcely had time to forget his
grievances and ill-humour, Gadifer accepted the command of a small
band of men who were to conquer Gran Canaria.
He set out on the 25th July, 1404, but this expedition was not fated
to meet with any good results, winds and waves were against it. At
last they reached the port of Telde, but as it was nearly dark and a
strong wind blowing they dared not land, and they went on to the
little town of Aginmez, where they remained eleven days at anchor;
the natives, encouraged by their king, laid an ambush for Gadifer
and his followers; there was a skirmish, blood was shed, and the
Castilians, feeling themselves outnumbered, went to Telde for two
days, and thence to Lancerota.
Gadifer was much disappointed at his want of success, and began to
be discontented with everything around him. Above all, his jealousy
of Béthencourt increased daily, and he gave way to violent
recriminations, saying openly that the chief had not done everything
himself, and that things would not have been in so advanced a stage
as they were if others had not aided him. This reached Béthencourt's
ears; he was much incensed, and reproached Gadifer. High words
followed, Gadifer insisted upon leaving the country, and as
Béthencourt had just made arrangements for returning to Spain, he
proposed to Gadifer to accompany him, that their cause of
disagreement might be inquired into. This proposal being accepted,
they set sail, but each in his own ship. When they reached Seville,
Gadifer laid his complaints before the king, but as the king gave
judgment against him, fully approving of Béthencourt's conduct, he
left Spain, and returning to France, never revisited the Canary
Islands which he had so fondly hoped to conquer for himself.
Béthencourt took leave of the king almost at the same time, for the
new colony demanded his immediate presence there; but before he left,
the inhabitants of Seville, with whom he was a great favourite,
showed him much kindness; what he valued more highly than anything
else was the supply of arms, gold, silver, and provisions that they
gave him. He went to Fortaventura, where his companions were
delighted to see him. Gadifer had left his son Hannibal in his place,
but Béthencourt treated him with much cordiality.
The first days of the installation of Béthencourt were far from
peaceful; skirmishes were of constant occurrence, the natives even
destroying the fortress of Richeroque, after burning and pillaging a
chapel. Béthencourt was determined to overcome them, and in the end
succeeded. He sent for several of his men from Lancerota, and gave
orders that the fortress should be rebuilt.
In spite of all this the combats began again, and many of the
islanders fell, among others a giant of nine feet high, whom
Béthencourt would have liked to have made prisoner. The governor
could not trust Gadifer's son nor the men who followed him, for
Hannibal seemed to have inherited his father's jealousy, but as
Béthencourt needed his help, he concealed his distrust. Happily,
Béthencourt's men outnumbered those who were faithful to Gadifer,
but Hannibal's taunts became so unbearable that Jean de Courtois was
sent to remind him of his oath of obedience and to advise him to
keep it.
Courtois was very badly received, he having a crow to pick with
Hannibal with regard to some native prisoners whom Gadifer's
followers had kept and would not give up. Hannibal was obliged to
obey the orders, but Courtois represented his conduct to Béthencourt
on his return in the very worst light, and tried to excite his
master's anger against him. "No, sir," answered the upright
Béthencourt, "I do not wish him to be wronged, we must never carry
our power to its utmost limits, we should always endeavour to
control ourselves and preserve our honour rather than seek for
profit."
In spite of these intestine discords, the war continued between the
natives and the conquerors, but the latter being well-armed always
came off victorious. The kings of Fortaventura sent a native to
Béthencourt saying that they wished to make peace with him, and to
become Christians. This news delighted the conqueror, and he sent
word that they would be well received if they would come to him.
Almost immediately on receiving this reply, King Maxorata, who
governed the north-westerly part of the island, set out, and with
his suite of twenty-two persons, was baptized on the 18th of January,
1405. Three days afterwards twenty-two other natives received the
sacrament of baptism. On the 25th of January the king who governed
the peninsula of Handia, the south-eastern part of the island, came
with twenty-six of his subjects, and was baptized. In a short time
all the inhabitants of Fortaventura had embraced the Christian
religion.
[Illustration: The King of Maxorata arrived with his suite.]
Béthencourt was so elated with these happy results, that he arranged
to revisit his own country, leaving Courtois as governor during his
absence. He set out on the last day of January amid the prayers and
blessings of his people, taking with him three native men and one
woman, to whom he wished to show something of France. He reached
Harfleur in twenty-one days, and two days later was at his own house,
where he only intended making a short stay, and then returning to
the Canary Islands. He met with a very warm reception from everybody.
One of his chief motives in returning to France was the hope of
finding people of all classes ready to return with him, on the
promise of grants of land in the island. He succeeded in finding a
certain number of emigrants, amongst whom were twenty-eight soldiers,
of whom twenty-three took their wives. Two vessels were prepared to
transport the party, and the 6th of May was the day named for them
to set out. On the 9th of May they set sail, and landed on Lancerota
just four mouths and a half after Béthencourt had quitted it.
He was received with trumpets, clarionets, tambourines, harps, and
other musical instruments. Thunder could scarcely have been heard
above the sound of this music. The natives celebrated his return by
dancing and singing, and crying out, "Here comes our king." Jean de
Courtois hastened to welcome his master, who asked him how
everything was going on; he replied, "Sir, all is going on as well
as possible."
Béthencourt's companions stayed with him at the fort of Lancerota;
they appeared much pleased with the country, enjoying the dates and
other fruits on the island, "and nothing seemed to harm them." After
they had been a short time at Lancerota, Béthencourt went with them
to see Fortaventura, and here his reception was as warm as it had
been at Lancerota, especially from the islanders and their two kings.
The kings supped with them at the fortress of Richeroque, which
Courtois had rebuilt.
Béthencourt announced his intention of conquering Gran Canaria
Island, as he had done Lancerota and Fortaventura; his hope was that
his nephew Maciot, whom he had brought with him from France, would
succeed him in the government of these islands, so that the name of
Béthencourt might be perpetuated there. He imparted his project to
Courtois, who highly approved of it, and added, "Sir, when you
return to France, I will go with you. I am a bad husband. It is five
years since I saw my wife, and, by my troth, she did not much care
about it."
The 6th of October, 1405, was the day fixed for starting for Gran
Canaria, but contrary winds carried the ships towards the African
coast, and they passed by Cape Bojador, where Béthencourt landed. He
made an expedition twenty-four miles inland, and seized some natives
and a great number of camels that he took to his vessels. They put
as many of the camels as possible on board, wishing to acclimatize
them in the Canary Islands, and the baron set sail again, leaving
Cape Bojador, which he had the honour of seeing thirty years before
the Portuguese navigators.
During this voyage from the coast of Africa to Gran Canaria, the
three vessels were separated in stormy weather, one going to Palma,
and another to Fortaventura, but finally they all reached Gran
Canaria. This island is sixty miles long and thirty-six miles broad;
at the northern end it is flat, but very hilly towards the south.
Firs, dragon-trees, olive, fig, and date-trees form large forests,
and sheep, goats, and wild dogs are found here in large numbers. The
soil is very fertile, and produces two crops of corn every year, and
that without any means of improving it. Its inhabitants form a large
body of people, and consider themselves all on an equality.
When Béthencourt had landed he set to work at once to conquer the
island. Unfortunately his Norman soldiers were so proud of their
success on the coast of Africa, that they thought they could conquer
this island with its ten thousand natives, with a mere handful of
men. Béthencourt seeing that they were so confident of success,
recommended them to be prudent, but they took no heed of this and
bitterly they rued their confidence. After a skirmish, in which they
seemed to have got the better of the islanders, they had left their
ranks, when the natives surprised them, massacring twenty-two of
them, including Jean de Courtois and Hannibal, Gadifer's son.
After this sad affair Béthencourt left Gran Canaria and went to try
to subdue Palma. The natives of this island were very clever in
slinging stones, rarely missing their aim, and in the encounters
with these islanders many fell on both sides, but more natives than
Normans, whose loss, however, amounted to one hundred.
After six weeks of skirmishing, Béthencourt left Palma, and went to
Ferro for three months, a large island twenty-one miles long and
fifteen broad. It is a flat table-land, and large woods of pine and
laurel-trees shade it in many places. The mists, which are frequent,
moisten the soil and make it especially favourable for the
cultivation of corn and the vine. Game is abundant; pigs, goats, and
sheep run wild about the country; there are also great lizards in
shape like the iguana of America. The inhabitants both men and women
are a very fine race, healthy, lively, agile and particularly well
made, in fact Ferro is one of the pleasantest islands of the group.
Béthencourt returned to Fortaventura with his ships after conquering
Ferro and Palma. This island is fifty-one miles in length by
twenty-four in breadth, and has high mountains as well as large
plains, but its surface is less undulating than that of the other
islands. Large streams of fresh water run through the island; the
euphorbia, a deadly poison, grows largely here, and date and
olive-trees are abundant, as well as a plant that is invaluable for
dyeing and whose cultivation would be most remunerative. The coast
of Fortaventura has no good harbours for large vessels, but small
ones can anchor there quite safely. It was in this island that
Béthencourt began to make a partition of land to the colonists, and
he succeeded in doing it so evenly that every one was satisfied with
his portion. Those colonists whom he had brought with him were to be
exempted from taxes for nine years.
The question of religion, and religious administration could not
fail to be of the deepest interest to so pious a man as Béthencourt,
so he resolved to go to Rome and try to obtain a bishop for this
country, who "would order and adorn the Roman Catholic faith."
Before setting out he appointed his nephew Maciot as lieutenant and
governor of the islands. Under his orders two sergeants were to act,
and enforce justice; he desired that twice a year news of the colony
should be sent to him in Normandy, and the revenue from Lancerota
and Fortaventura was to be devoted to building two churches. He said
to his nephew Maciot, "I give you full authority in everything to do
whatever you think best, and I believe you will do all for my honour
and to my advantage. Follow as nearly as possible Norman and French
customs, especially in the administration of justice. Above all
things, try and keep peace and unity among yourselves, and care for
each other as brothers, and specially try that there shall be no
rivalry among the gentlemen; I have given to each one his share and
the country is quite large enough for each to have his own sphere. I
can tell you nothing further beyond again impressing the importance
of your all living as good friends together, and then all will be
well."
Béthencourt remained three months in Fortaventura and the other
islands. He rode about among the people on his mule, and found many
of the natives beginning to speak Norman-French. Maciot and the
other gentlemen accompanied him, he pointing out what was best to be
done and the most honest way of doing it. Then he gave notice that
he would set out for Rome on the ensuing 15th of December. Returning
to Lancerota, he remained there till his departure, and ordered all
the gentlemen he had brought with him, the workmen, and the three
kings to appear before him two days before his departure, to tell
them what he wished done, and to commend himself and them to God's
protection.
None failed to appear at this meeting; they were all received at the
fort on Lancerota, and sumptuously entertained. When the repast was
over, he spoke to them, especially impressing the duty of obedience
to his nephew Maciot upon them, the retention of the fifth of
everything for himself, and also the exercise of all Christian
virtues and of fervent love to God. This done, he chose those who
were to accompany him to Rome, and prepared to set out.
His vessel had scarcely set sail when cries and groans were heard on
all sides, both Europeans and natives alike regretting this just
master, who they feared would never return to them. A great number
waded into the water, and tried to stop the vessel that carried him
away from them, but the sails were set and Béthencourt was really
gone. "May God keep him safe from all harm," was the utterance of
many that day. In a week he was at Seville, from thence he went to
Valladolid, where the king received him very graciously. He related
the narrative of his conquests to the king, and requested from him
letters recommending him to the Pope, that he might have a bishop
appointed for the islands. The king gave him the letters, and loaded
him with gifts, and then Béthencourt set out for Rome with a
numerous retinue.
He remained three weeks in the eternal city, and was admitted to
kiss Pope Innocent VII.'s foot, who complimented him on his having
made so many proselytes to the Christian faith, and on his bravery
in having ventured so far from his native country. When the bulls
were prepared as Béthencourt had requested, and Albert des Maisons
was appointed Bishop of the Canary Islands, the Norman took leave of
the Pope after receiving his blessing.
The new prelate took leave of Béthencourt, and set out at once for
his diocese. He went by way of Spain, taking with him some letters
from Béthencourt to the king. Then he set sail for Fortaventura and
arrived there without any obstacle. Maciot gave him a cordial
reception, and the bishop at once began to organize his diocese,
governing with gentleness and courtesy, preaching now in one island,
now in another, and offering up public prayers for Béthencourt's
safety. Maciot was universally beloved, but especially by the
natives. This happy, peaceful time only lasted for five years, for
later on, Maciot began to abuse his unlimited power, and levied such
heavy exactions that he was obliged to fly the country to save his
life.
Béthencourt after leaving Rome went to Florence and to Paris, and
then to his own chateau, where a great number of people came to pay
their respects to the king of the Canary Islands, and if on his
return the first time he was much thought of, his reception this
second time far exceeded it. Béthencourt established himself at
Grainville; although he was an old man, his wife was still young. He
had frequent accounts from Maciot of his beloved islands, and he
hoped one day to return to his kingdom, but God willed otherwise.
One day in the year 1425 he was seized with what proved to be fatal
illness; he was aware that the end was near; and after making his
will and receiving the last sacraments of the church he passed away.
"May God keep him and pardon his sins," says the narrative of his
life; "he is buried in the church of Grainville la Teinturière, in
front of the high altar."
[Illustration: Jean de Béthencourt makes his will.]
CHAPTER VII.
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS, 1436-1506.
I.
Discovery of Madeira, Cape de Verd Islands, the Azores, Congo, and
Guinea--Bartholomew Diaz--Cabot and Labrador--The geographical and
commercial tendencies of the middle ages--The erroneous idea of the
distance between Europe and Asia--Birth of Christopher Columbus--His
first voyages--His plans rejected--His sojourn at the Franciscan
convent--His reception by Ferdinand and Isabella--Treaty of the 17th
of April, 1492--The brothers Pinzon--Three armed caravels at the
port of Palos--Departure on the 3rd of August, 1492.
The year 1492 is an era in geographical annals. It is the date of
the discovery of America. The genius of one man was fated to
complete the terrestrial globe, and to show the truth of Gagliuffi's
saying,--
Unus erat mundus; duo sint, ait iste; fuere.
The old world was to be entrusted with the moral and political
education of the new. Was it equal to the task, with its ideas still
limited, its tendencies still semi-barbarous, and its bitter
religious animosities? We must leave the answer to these questions
to the facts that follow.
Between the year 1405, when Béthencourt had just accomplished the
colonization of the Canary Islands, and the year 1492, what had
taken place? We will give a short sketch of the geographical
enterprise of the intervening years. A considerable impetus had been
given to science by the Arabs (who were soon to be expelled from
Spain), and had spread throughout the peninsula. In all the ports,
but more especially in those of Portugal, there was much talk of the
continent of Africa, and the rich and wonderful countries beyond the
sea. "A thousand anecdotes," says Michelet, "stimulated curiosity,
valour and avarice, every one wishing to see these mysterious
countries where monsters abounded and gold was scattered over the
surface of the land." A young prince, Don Henry, duke of Viseu,
third son of John I., who was very fond of the study of astronomy
and geography, exercised a considerable influence over his
contemporaries; it is to him that Portugal owes her colonial power
and wealth and the expeditions so repeatedly made, which were
vividly described, and their results spoken of as so wonderful, that
they may have aided in awakening Columbus' love of adventure. Don
Henry had an observatory built in the southern part of the province
of Algarve, at Sagres, commanding a most splendid view over the sea,
and seeming as though it must have been placed there to seek for
some unknown land; he also established a naval college, where
learned geographers traced correct maps and taught the use of the
mariner's compass. The young prince surrounded himself with learned
men, and especially gathered all the information he could as to the
possibility of circumnavigating Africa, and thus reaching India.
Though he had never taken part in any maritime expedition, his
encouragement and care for seamen gave him the soubriquet of "the
Navigator," by which name he is known in history. Two gentlemen
belonging to Don Henry's court, Juan Gonzales Zarco, and Tristram
Vaz Teixeira had passed Cape Nun, the terror of ancient navigators,
when they were carried out to sea and passed near an island to which
they gave the name of Porto-Santo. Sometime afterwards, as they were
sailing towards a black point that remained on the horizon, they
came to a large island covered with splendid forests; this was
Madeira.
[Illustration: Prince Henry of Portugal--"The Navigator."]
In 1433, Cape Bojador, which had for long been such a difficulty to
navigators, was first doubled by the two Portuguese sailors,
Gillianès and Gonzalès Baldaya, who passed more than forty leagues
beyond it.
Encouraged by their example, Antonio Gonzalès, and Nuño Tristram, in
1441, sailed as far as Cape Blanco, "a feat," says Faria y Souza
"that is generally looked upon as being little short of the labours
of Hercules," and they brought back with them to Lisbon some
gold-dust taken from the Rio del Ouro. In a second voyage Tristram
noticed some of the Cape de Verd Islands, and went as far south as
Sierra Leone. In the course of this expedition, he bought from some
Moors off the coast of Guinea, ten negroes, whom he took back with
him to Lisbon and parted with for a very high price, they having
excited great curiosity. This was the origin of the slave-trade in
Europe, which for the next 400 years robbed Africa of so many of her
people, and was a disgrace to humanity.
In 1441, Cada Mosto doubled Cape Verd, and explored a part of the
coast below it. About 1446, the Portuguese, advancing further into
the open sea than their predecessors, came upon the group of the
Azores. From this time all fear vanished, for the formidable line
had been passed, beyond which the air was said to scorch like fire;
expeditions succeeded each other without intermission, and each
brought home accounts of newly-discovered regions. It seemed as if
the African continent was really endless, for the further they
advanced towards the south, the further the cape they sought
appeared to recede. Some little time before this King John II. had
added the title of Seigneur of Guinea to his other titles, and to
the discovery of Congo had been added that of some stars in the
southern hemisphere hitherto unknown, when Diogo Cam, in three
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;
,
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,
,
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230
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.
,
-
232
,
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.
234
,
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,
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237
238
239
240
.
241
,
-
.
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.
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-
-
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-
246
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247
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248
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251
252
253
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255
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256
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257
;
258
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260
261
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:
.
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262
263
264
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.
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265
,
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.
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267
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,
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269
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,
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278
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281
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284
,
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,
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,
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,
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289
,
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297
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327
328
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329
330
331
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332
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333
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334
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336
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337
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339
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342
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360
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365
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366
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367
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368
369
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370
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371
372
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373
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375
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376
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378
379
380
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382
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383
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385
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387
388
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389
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390
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391
392
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393
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394
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395
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396
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397
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398
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400
401
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405
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406
407
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412
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415
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425
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432
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438
439
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448
449
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450
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452
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477
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480
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482
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497
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526
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697
698
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[
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898
899
900
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.
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968
969
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.
.
997
,
998
999
,
,
1000