CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS.
THE EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.
[Frontispiece: TRANSLATED BY DORA LEIGH]
CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS.
THE EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.
BY JULES VERNE
London:
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON,
CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
1882.
[-All rights reserved.-]
EXPLORATION OF THE WORLD.
PREFACE.
This narrative will comprehend not only all the explorations made in
past ages, but also all the new discoveries which have of late years
so greatly interested the scientific world. In order to give to this
work--enlarged perforce by the recent labours of modern
travellers,--all the accuracy possible, I have called in the aid of
a man whom I with justice regard as one of the most competent
geographers of the present day: M. Gabriel Marcel, attached to the
Bibliothèque Nationale.
With the advantage of his acquaintance with several foreign
languages which are unknown to me, we have been able to go to the
fountain-head, and to derive all information from absolutely
original documents. Our readers will, therefore, render to M. Marcel
the credit due to him for his share in a work which will demonstrate
what manner of men the great travellers have been, from the time of
Hanno and Herodotus down to that of Livingstone and Stanley.
JULES VERNE.
CHAPTER I.
CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS BEFORE THE CHRISTIAN ERA.
HANNO, 505; HERODOTUS, 484; PYTHEAS, 340; NEARCHUS, 326; EUDOXUS,
146; CÆSAR, 100; STRABO, 50.
Hanno, the Carthaginian--Herodotus visits Egypt, Lybia, Ethiopia,
Phoenicia, Arabia, Babylon, Persia, India, Media, Colchis, the
Caspian Sea, Scythia, Thrace, and Greece--Pytheas explores the
coasts of Iberia and Gaul, the English Channel, the Isle of Albion,
the Orkney Islands, and the land of Thule--Nearchus visits the
Asiatic coast, from the Indus to the Persian Gulf--Eudoxus
reconnoitres the West Coast of Africa--Cæsar conquers Gaul and Great
Britain--Strabo travels over the interior of Asia, and Egypt, Greece,
and Italy.
The first traveller of whom we have any account in history, is Hanno,
who was sent by the Carthaginian senate to colonize some parts of
the Western coast of Africa. The account of this expedition was
written in the Carthaginian language and afterwards translated into
Greek. It is known to us now by the name of the "Periplus of Hanno."
At what period this explorer lived, historians are not agreed, but
the most probable account assigns the date B.C. 505 to his
exploration of the African coast.
Hanno left Carthage with a fleet of sixty vessels of fifty oars each,
carrying 30,000 persons, and provisions for a long voyage. These
emigrants, for so we may call them, were destined to people the new
towns that the Carthaginians hoped to found on the west coast of
Libya, or as we now call it, Africa.
The fleet successfully passed the Pillars of Hercules, the rocks of
Gibraltar and Ceuta which command the Strait, and ventured on the
Atlantic, taking a southerly course. Two days after passing the
Straits, Hanno anchored on the coast, and laid the foundation of the
town of Thumiaterion.
Then he put to sea again, and doubling the cape of Soloïs, made
fresh discoveries, and advanced to the mouth of a large African
river, where he found a tribe of wandering shepherds camping on the
banks. He only waited to conclude a treaty of alliance with them,
before continuing his voyage southward. He next reached the Island
of Cerne, situated in a bay, and measuring five stadia in
circumference, or as we should say at the present day, nearly 925
yards. According to Hanno's own account, this island should be
placed, with regard to the Pillars of Hercules, at an equal distance
to that which separates these Pillars from Carthage.
They set sail again, and Hanno reached the mouth of the river
Chretes, which forms a sort of natural harbour, but as they
endeavoured to explore this river, they were assailed with showers
of stones from the native negro race, inhabiting the surrounding
country, and driven back, and after this inhospitable reception they
returned to Cerne. We must not omit to add that Hanno mentions
finding large numbers of crocodiles and hippopotami in this river.
Twelve days after this unsuccessful expedition, the fleet reached a
mountainous region, where fragrant trees and shrubs abounded, and it
then entered a vast gulf which terminated in a plain. This region
appeared quite calm during the day, but after nightfall it was
illumined by tongues of flame, which might have proceeded from fires
lighted by the natives, or from the natural ignition of the dry
grass when the rainy season was over.
In five days, Hanno doubled the Cape, known as the Hespera Keras,
there, according to his own account, "he heard the sound of fifes,
cymbals, and tambourines, and the clamour of a multitude of people."
The soothsayers, who accompanied the party of Carthaginian explorers,
counselled flight from this land of terrors, and, in obedience to
their advice, they set sail again, still taking a southerly course.
They arrived at a cape, which, stretching southwards, formed a gulf,
called Notu Keras, and, according to M. D'Avezac, this gulf must
have been the mouth of the river Ouro, which falls into the Atlantic
almost within the Tropic of Cancer. At the lower end of this gulf,
they found an island inhabited by a vast number of gorillas, which
the Carthaginians mistook for hairy savages. They contrived to get
possession of three female gorillas, but were obliged to kill them
on account of their great ferocity.
This Notu Keras must have been the extreme limit reached by the
Carthaginian explorers, and though some historians incline to the
belief that they only went to Bojador, which is two degrees North of
the tropics, it is more probable that the former account is the true
one, and that Hanno, finding himself short of provisions, returned
northwards to Carthage, where he had the account of his voyage
engraved in the temple of Baal Moloch.
After Hanno, the most illustrious of ancient travellers, was
Herodotus, who has been called the "Father of History," and who was
the nephew of the poet Panyasis, whose poems ranked with those of
Homer and Hesiod. It will serve our purpose better if we only speak
of Herodotus as a traveller, not an historian, as we wish to follow
him so far as possible through the countries that he traversed.
Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus, a town in Asia Minor, in the
year B.C. 484. His family were rich, and having large commercial
transactions they were able to encourage the taste for explorations
which he showed. At this time there were many different opinions as
to the shape of the earth: the Pythagorean school having even then
begun to teach that it must be round, but Herodotus took no part in
this discussion, which was of the deepest interest to learned men of
that time, and, still young, he left home with a view of exploring
with great care all the then known world, and especially those parts
of it of which there were but few and uncertain data.
He left Halicarnassus in 464, being then twenty years of age, and
probably directed his steps first to Egypt, visiting Memphis,
Heliopolis, and Thebes. He seems to have specially turned his
attention to the overflow of the banks of the Nile, and he gives an
account of the different opinions held as to the source of this
river, which the Egyptians worshipped as one of their deities. "When
the Nile overflows its banks," he says, "you can see nothing but the
towns rising out of the water, and they appear like the islands in
the Ægean Sea." He tells of the religious ceremonies among the
Egyptians, their sacrifices, their ardour in celebrating the feasts
in honour of their goddess Isis, which took place principally at
Busiris (whose ruins may still be seen near Bushir), and of the
veneration paid to both wild and tame animals, which were looked
upon almost as sacred, and to whom they even rendered funeral
honours at their death. He depicts in the most faithful colours, the
Nile crocodile, its form, habits, and the way in which it is caught,
and the hippopotamus, the momot, the phoenix, the ibis, and the
serpents that were consecrated to the god Jupiter. Nothing can be
more life-like than his accounts of Egyptian customs, and the
notices of their habits, their games, and their way of embalming the
dead, in which the chemists of that period seem to have excelled.
Then we have the history of the country from Menes, its first king,
downwards to Herodotus' time, and he describes the building of the
Pyramids under Cheops, the Labyrinth that was built a little above
the Lake Moeris (of which the remains were discovered in A.D. 1799),
Lake Moeris itself, whose origin he ascribes to the hand of man, and
the two Pyramids which are situated a little above the lake. He
seems to have admired many of the Egyptian temples, and especially
that of Minerva at Sais, and of Vulcan and Isis at Memphis, and the
colossal monolith that was three years in course of transportation
from Elephantina to Sais, though 2000 men were employed on the
gigantic work.
After having carefully inspected everything of interest in Egypt,
Herodotus went into Lybia, little thinking that the continent he was
exploring, extended thence to the tropic of Cancer. He made special
inquiries in Lybia as to the number of its inhabitants, who were a
simple nomadic race principally living near the sea-coast, and he
speaks of the Ammonians, who possessed the celebrated temple of
Jupiter Ammon, the remains of which have been discovered on the
north-east side of the Lybian desert, about 300 miles from Cairo.
Herodotus furnishes us with some very valuable information on Lybian
customs; he describes their habits; speaks of the animals that
infest the country, serpents of a prodigious size, lions, elephants,
bears, asps, horned asses (probably the rhinoceros of the present
day), and cynocephali, "animals with no heads, and whose eyes are
placed on their chest," to use his own expression; foxes, hyenas,
porcupines, wild zarus, panthers, etc. He winds up his description
by saying that the only two aboriginal nations that inhabit this
region are the Lybians and Ethiopians.
According to Herodotus the Ethiopians were at that time to be found
above Elephantina, but commentators are induced to doubt if this
learned explorer ever really visited Ethiopia, and if he did not, he
may easily have learnt from the Egyptians the details that he gives
of its capital, Meroe, of the worship of Jupiter and Bacchus, and
the longevity of the natives. There can be no doubt, however, that
he set sail for Tyre in Phoenicia, and that he was much struck with
the beauty of the two magnificent temples of Hercules. He next
visited Tarsus and took advantage of the information gathered on the
spot, to write a short history of Phoenicia, Syria, and Palestine.
We next find that he went southward to Arabia, and he calls it the
Ethiopia of Asia, for he thought the southern parts of Arabia were
the limits of human habitation. He tells us of the remarkable way in
which the Arabs kept any vow that they might have made; that their
two deities were Uranius and Bacchus, and of the abundant growth of
myrrh, cinnamon and other spices, and he gives a very interesting
account of their culture and preparation.
We cannot be quite sure which country he next visited, as he calls
it both Assyria and Babylonia, but he gives a most minute account of
the splendid city of Babylon (which was the home of the monarchs of
that country, after the destruction of Nineveh), and whose ruins are
now only in scattered heaps on either side of the Euphrates, which
flowed a broad, deep, rapid river, dividing the city into two parts.
On one side of the river the fortified palace of the king stood, and
on the other the temple of Jupiter Belus, which may have been built
on the site of the Tower of Babel. Herodotus next speaks of the two
queens, Semiramis and Nitocris, telling us of all the means taken by
the latter to increase the prosperity and safety of her capital, and
passing on to speak of the natural products of the country, the
wheat, barley, millet, sesame, the vine, fig-tree and palm-tree. He
winds up with a description of the costume of the Babylonians, and
their customs, especially that of celebrating their marriages by the
public crier.
[Illustration: The Marriage Ceremony.]
After exploring Babylonia he went to Persia, and as the express
purpose of his travels was to collect all the information he could
relating to the lengthy wars that had taken place between the
Persians and Grecians, he was most anxious to visit the spots where
the battles had been fought. He sets out by remarking upon the
custom prevalent in Persia, of not clothing their deities in any
human form, nor erecting temples nor altars where they might be
worshipped, but contenting themselves with adoring them on the tops
of the mountains. He notes their domestic habits, their disdain of
animal food, their taste for delicacies, their passion for wine, and
their custom of transacting business of the utmost importance when
they had been drinking to excess; their curiosity as to the habits
of other nations, their love of pleasure, their warlike qualities,
their anxiety for the education of their children, their respect for
the lives of all their fellow-creatures, even of their slaves, their
horror both of debt and lying, and their repugnance to the disease
of leprosy which they thought proved that the sufferer "had sinned
in some way against the sun." The India of Herodotus, according to M.
Vivien de St. Martin, only consisted of that part of the country
that is watered by the five rivers of the Punjaub, adjoining
Afghanistan, and this was the region where the young traveller
turned his steps on leaving Persia. He thought that the population
of India was larger than that of any other country, and he divided
it into two classes, the first having settled habitations, the
second leading a nomadic life. Those who lived in the eastern part
of the country killed their sick and aged people, and ate them,
while those in the north, who were a finer, braver, and more
industrious race, employed themselves in collecting the auriferous
sands. India was then the most easterly extremity of the inhabited
world, as he thought, and he observes, "that the two extremities of
the world seem to have shared nature's best gifts, as Greece enjoyed
the most agreeable temperature possible," and that was his idea of
the western limits of the world.
Media is the next country visited by this indefatigable traveller,
and he gives the history of the Medes, the nation which was the
first to shake off the Assyrian yoke. They founded the great city of
Ecbatana, and surrounded it with seven concentric walls. They became
a separate nation in the reign of Deioces. After crossing the
mountains that separate Media from Colchis, the Greek traveller
entered the country, made famous by the valour of Jason, and studied
its manners and customs with the care and attention that were among
his most striking characteristics.
Herodotus seems to have been well acquainted with the geography of
the Caspian Sea, for he speaks of it as a Sea "quite by itself" and
having no communication with any other. He considered that it was
bounded on the west by the Caucasian Mountains and on the east by a
great plain inhabited by the Massagetæ, who, both Arian and Diodorus
Siculus think, may have been Scythians. These Massagetæ worshipped
the Sun as their only deity, and sacrificed horses in its honour. He
speaks here of two large rivers, one of which, the Araxes, would be
the Volga, and the other, that he calls the Ista, must be the Danube.
The traveller then went into Scythia, and he thought that the
Scythians were the different tribes inhabiting the country that lay
between the Danube and the Don, in fact a considerable portion of
European Russia. He found the barbarous custom of putting out the
eyes of their prisoners was practised among them, and he notices
that they only wandered from place to place without caring to
cultivate their land. Herodotus relates many of the fables that make
the origin of the Scythian nation so obscure, and in which Hercules
plays a prominent part. He adds a list of the different tribes that
composed the Scythian nation, but he does not seem to have visited
the country lying to the north of the Euxine, or Black Sea. He gives
a minute description of the habits of these people, and expresses
his admiration for the Pontus Euxinus. The dimensions that he gives
of the Black Sea, the Bosphorus, of the Propontis, the Palus Mæotis
and of the Ægean Sea, are almost exactly the same as those given by
geographers of the present day. He also names the large rivers that
flow into these seas. The Ister or Danube, the Borysthenes or
Dnieper, the Tanais, or Don; and he finishes by relating how the
alliance, and afterwards the union between the Scythians and Amazons
took place, which explains the reason why the young women of that
country are not allowed to marry before they have killed an enemy
and established their character for valour.
After a short stay in Thrace, during which he was convinced that the
Getæ were the bravest portion of this race, Herodotus arrived in
Greece, which was to be the termination of his travels, to the
country where he hoped to collect the only documents still wanting
to complete his history, and he visited all the spots that had
become illustrious by the great battles fought between the Greeks
and Persians. He gives a minute description of the Pass of
Thermopylæ, and of his visit to the plain of Marathon, the
battlefield of Platæa, and his return to Asia Minor, whence he
passed along the coast on which the Greeks had established several
colonies. Herodotus can only have been twenty-eight years of age
when he returned to Halicarnassus in Caria, for it was in B.C. 456
that he read the history of his travels at the Olympic Games. His
country was at that time oppressed by Lygdamis, and he was exiled to
Samos; but though he soon after rose in arms to overthrow the tyrant,
the ingratitude of his fellow-citizens obliged him to return into
exile. In 444 he took part in the games at the Pantheon, and there
he read his completed work, which was received with enthusiasm, and
towards the end of his life he retired to Thurium in Italy, where he
died, B.C. 406, leaving behind him the reputation of being the
greatest traveller and the most celebrated historian of antiquity.
After Herodotus we must pass over a century and a half, and only
note, in passing, the Physician Ctesias, a contemporary of Xenophon,
who published the account of a voyage to India that he really never
made; and we shall come in chronological order to Pytheas, who was
at once a traveller, geographer, and historian, one of the most
celebrated men of his time. It was about the year B.C. 340 that
Pytheas set out from the columns of Hercules with a single vessel,
but instead of taking a southerly course like his Carthaginian
predecessors, he went northwards, passing by the coasts of Iberia
and Gaul to the furthest points which now form the Cape of
Finisterre, and then he entered the English Channel and came upon
the English coast--the British Isles--of which he was to be the
first explorer. He disembarked at various points on the coast and
made friends with the simple, honest, sober, industrious inhabitants,
who traded largely in tin.
Pytheas ventured still further north, and went beyond the Orcades
Islands to the furthest point of Scotland, and he must have reached
a very high latitude, for during the summer the night only lasted
two hours. After six days further sailing, he came to lands which he
calls Thule, probably the Jutland or Norway of the present day,
beyond which he could not pass, for he says, "there was neither land,
sea, nor air there." He retraced his course, and changing it
slightly, he came to the mouth of the Rhine, to the country of the
Ostians, and, further inland, to Germany. Thence he visited the
mouth of the Tanais, that is supposed to be the Elbe or the Oder,
and he retuned to Marseilles, just a year after leaving his native
town. Pytheas, besides being such a brave sailor, was a remarkably
scientific man: he was the first to discover the influence that the
moon exercises on the tides, and to notice that the polar star is
not situated at the exact spot at which the axis of the globe is
supposed to be. Some years after the time of Pytheas, about B.C. 326
a Greek traveller made his name famous. This was Nearchus, a native
of Crete, one of Alexander's admirals, and he was charged to visit
all the coast of Asia from the mouth of the Indus to that of the
Euphrates. When Alexander first resolved that this expedition should
take place, which had for its object the opening up of a
communication between India and Egypt, he was at the upper part of
the Indus. He furnished Nearchus with a fleet of thirty-three
galleys, of some vessels with two decks, and a great number of
transport ships, and 2000 men. Nearchus came down the Indus in about
four months, escorted on either bank of the river by Alexander's
armies, and after spending seven months in exploring the Delta, he
set sail and followed the west line of what we call Beloochistan in
the present day.
He put to sea on the second of October, a month before the winter
storms had taken a direction that was favourable to his purpose, so
that the commencement of his voyage was disastrous, and in forty
days he had scarcely made eighty miles in a westerly direction. He
touched first at Stura and at Corestis, which do not seem to answer
to any of the now-existing villages on the coast; then at the Island
of Crocala, which forms the bay of Caranthia. Beaten back by
contrary winds, after doubling the cape of Monze, the fleet took
refuge in a natural harbour that its commander thought that he could
fortify as a defence against the attacks of the barbarous natives,
who, even at the present day, keep up their character as pirates.
After spending twenty-four days in this harbour, Nearchus put to sea
again on the 3rd of November. Severe gales often obliged him to keep
very near the coast, and when this was the case he was obliged to
take all possible precautions to defend himself from the attacks of
the ferocious Beloochees, who are described by eastern historians
"as a barbarous nation, with long dishevelled hair, and long flowing
beards, who are more like bears or satyrs than human beings." Up to
this time, however, no serious disaster had happened to the fleet,
but on the 10th of November in a heavy gale two galleys and a ship
sank. Nearchus then anchored at Crocala, and there he was met by a
ship laden with corn that Alexander had sent out to him, and he was
able to supply each vessel with provisions for ten days.
After many disasters and a skirmish with some of the natives,
Nearchus reached the extreme point of the land of the Orites, which
is marked in modern geography by Cape Morant. Here, he states in his
narrative that the rays of the sun at mid-day are vertical, and
therefore there are no shadows of any kind; but this is surely a
mistake, for at this time in the Southern hemisphere the sun is in
the Tropic of Capricorn; and, beyond this, his vessels were always
some degrees distant from the Tropic of Cancer, therefore even in
the height of summer this phenomenon could not have taken place, and
we know that his voyage was in winter.
Circumstances seemed now rather more in his favour; for the time of
the eastern monsoon was over, when he sailed along the coast which
is inhabited by a tribe called Ichthyophagi, who subsist solely on
fish, and from the failure of all vegetation are obliged to feed
even their sheep upon the same food. The fleet was now becoming very
short of provisions; so after doubling Cape Posmi Nearchus took a
pilot from those shores on board his own vessel, and with the wind
in their favour they made rapid progress, finding the country less
bare as they advanced, a few scattered trees and shrubs being
visible from the shore. They reached a little town, of the name of
which we have no record, and as they were almost without food
Nearchus surprised and took possession of it, the inhabitants making
but little resistance. Canasida, or Churbar as we call it, was their
next resting-place, and at the present day the ruins of a town are
still visible in the bay. But their corn was now entirely exhausted,
and though they tried successively at Canate, Trois, and Dagasira
for further supplies, it was all in vain, these miserable little
towns not being able to furnish more than enough for their own
consumption. The fleet had neither corn nor meat, and they could not
make up their minds to feed upon the tortoises that abound in that
part of the coast.
Just as they entered the Persian Gulf they encountered an immense
number of whales, and the sailors were so terrified by their size
and number, that they wished to fly; it was not without much
difficulty that Nearchus at last prevailed upon them to advance
boldly, and they soon scattered their formidable enemies.
[Illustration: Nearchus leading on his followers against the
monsters of the deep.]
Having changed their westerly course for a north-easterly one, they
soon came upon fertile shores, and their eyes were refreshed by the
sight of corn-fields and pasture-lands, interspersed with all kinds
of fruit-trees except the olive. They put into Badis or Jask, and
after leaving it and passing Maceta or Mussendon, they came in sight
of the Persian Gulf, to which Nearchus, following the geography of
the Arabs, gave the misnomer of the Red Sea.
They sailed up the gulf, and after one halt reached Harmozia, which
has since given its name to the little island of Ormuz. There he
learnt that Alexander's army was only five days' march from him, and
he disembarked at once, and hastened to meet it. No news of the
fleet having reached the army for twenty-one weeks, they had given
up all hope of seeing it again, and great was Alexander's joy when
Nearchus appeared before him, though the hardships he had endured
had altered him almost beyond recognition. Alexander ordered games
to be celebrated and sacrifices offered up to the gods; then
Nearchus returned to Harmozia, as he wished to go as far as Susa
with the fleet, and set sail again, having invoked Jupiter the
Deliverer.
He touched at some of the neighbouring islands, probably those of
Arek and Kismis, and soon afterwards the vessels ran aground, but
the advancing tide floated them again, and after passing Bestion,
they arrived at the island of Keish, that is sacred to Mercury and
Venus. This was the boundary-line between Karmania and Persia. As
they advanced along the Persian coast, they visited different places,
Gillam, Indarabia, Shevou, &c., and at the last-named was found a
quantity of wheat which Alexander had sent for the use of the
explorers.
Some days after this they came to the mouth of the river Araxes,
that separates Persia from Susiana, and thence they reached a large
lake situated in the country now called Dorghestan, and finally
anchored near the village of Degela, at the source of the Euphrates,
having accomplished their project of visiting all the coast lying
between the Euphrates and Indus. Nearchus returned a second time to
Alexander, who rewarded him magnificently, and placed him in command
of his fleet. Alexander's wish, that the whole of the Arabian coast
should be explored as far as the Red Sea, was never fulfilled, as he
died before the expedition was arranged.
It is said that Nearchus became governor of Lysia and Pamphylia, but
in his leisure time he wrote an account of his travels, which has
unfortunately perished, though not before Arian had made a complete
analysis of it in his Historia Indica. It seems probable that
Nearchus fell in the battle of Ipsu, leaving behind him the
reputation of being a very able commander; his voyage may be looked
upon as an event of no small importance in the history of navigation.
We must not omit to mention a most hazardous attempt made in B.C.
146, by Eudoxus of Cyzicus, a geographer living at the court of
Euergetes II, to sail round Africa. He had visited Egypt and the
coast of India, when this far greater project occurred to him, one
which was only accomplished sixteen hundred years later by Vasco da
Gama. Eudoxus fitted out a large vessel and two smaller ones, and
set sail upon the unknown waters of the Atlantic. How far he took
these vessels we do not know, but after having had communication
with some natives, whom he thought were Ethiopians, he returned to
Mauritania. Thence he went to Tiberia, and made preparations for
another attempt to circumnavigate Africa, but whether he ever set
out upon this voyage is not known; in fact some learned men are even
inclined to consider Eudoxus an impostor.
We have still to mention two names of illustrious travellers, living
before the Christian era; those of Cæsar and Strabo. Cæsar, born B.C.
100, was pre-eminently a -conqueror-, not an -explorer-, but we must
remember, that in the year B.C. 58, he undertook the conquest of
Gaul, and during the ten years that were occupied in this vast
enterprise, he led his victorious Legions to the shores of Great
Britain, where the inhabitants were of German extraction.
As to Strabo, who was born in Cappadocia B.C. 50, he distinguished
himself more as a geographer than a traveller, but he travelled
through the interior of Asia, and visited Egypt, Greece, and Italy,
living many years in Rome, and dying there in the latter part of the
reign of Tiberius. Strabo wrote a Geography in seventeen Books, of
which the greater part has come down to us, and this work, with that
of Ptolemy, are the two most valuable legacies of ancient to modern
Geographers.
CHAPTER II.
CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS FROM THE FIRST TO THE NINTH CENTURY.
PAUSANIAS, 174; FA-HIAN, 399; COSMOS INDICOPLEUSTES, 500; ARCULPHE,
700; WILLIBALD, 725; SOLEYMAN, 851.
Pliny, Hippalus, Arian, and Ptolemy--Pausanias visits Attica,
Corinth, Laconia, Messenia, Elis, Achaia, Arcadia, Boeotia, and
Phocis--Fa-Hian explores Kan-tcheou, Tartary, Northern India, the
Punjaub, Ceylon, and Java--Cosmos Indicopleustes, and the Christian
Topography of the Universe--Arculphe describes Jerusalem, the valley
of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives, Bethlehem, Jericho, the river
Jordan, Libanus, the Dead Sea, Capernaum, Nazareth, Mount Tabor,
Damascus, Tyre, Alexandria, and Constantinople--Willibald and the
Holy Land--Soleyman travels through Ceylon, and Sumatra, and crosses
the Gulf of Siam and the China Sea.
In the first two centuries of the Christian era, the study of
geography received a great stimulus from the advance of other
branches of science, but travellers, or rather explorers of new
countries were very few in number. Pliny in the year A.D. 23,
devoted the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth books of his Natural
History to geography, and in A.D. 50, Hippalus, a clever navigator,
discovered the laws governing the monsoon in the Indian Ocean, and
taught sailors how they might deviate from their usual course, so as
to make these winds subservient to their being able to go to and
return from India in one year. Arian, a Greek historian, born A.D.
105, wrote an account of the navigation of the Euxine or Black Sea,
and pointed out as nearly as possible, the countries that had been
discovered by explorers who had lived before his time; and Ptolemy
the Egyptian, about A.D. 175, making use of the writings of his
predecessors, published a celebrated geography, in which, for the
first time, places and cities were marked in their relative latitude
and longitude on a mathematical plan.
The first traveller of the Christian era, whose name has been handed
down to us, was Pausanias, a Greek writer, living in Rome in the
second century, and whose account of his travels bears the date of
A.D. 175. Pausanias did for ancient Greece what Joanne, the
industrious and clever Frenchman did for the other countries of
Europe, in compiling the "Traveller's Guide." His account, a most
reliable one on all points, and most exact even in details, was one
upon which travellers of the second century might safely depend in
their journeys through the different parts of Greece.
Pausanias gives a minute description of Attica, and especially of
Athens and its monuments, tombs, temples, citadel, academy, columns,
and of the Areopagus.
From Attica Pausanias went to Corinth, and then explored the Islands
of Ægina and Methana, Sparta, the Island of Cerigo, Messene, Achaia,
Arcadia, Boeotia, and Phocis. The roads in the provinces and even
the streets in the towns, are mentioned in his narrative, as well as
the general character of the country through which he passed;
although we can scarcely say that he added any fresh discoveries to
those already made, he was one of those careful travellers whose
object was more to obtain exact information, than to make new
discoveries. His narrative has been of the greatest use to all
geographers and writers upon Greece and the Peloponnesus, and an
author of the sixteenth century has truly said that this book is "a
most ancient and rare specimen of erudition."
[Illustration: World as known to the Ancients.]
It was about a hundred and thirty years after the Greek historian,
in the fourth century, that a Chinese monk undertook the exploration
of the countries lying to the west of China. The account of his
travels is still extant, and we may well agree with M. Charton when
he says that "this is a most valuable work, carrying us beyond our
ordinarily narrow view of western civilization."
Fa-Hian, the traveller, was accompanied by several monks; wishing to
leave China by the west, they crossed more than one chain of
mountains, and reached the country now called Kan-tcheou, which is
not far from the great wall. They crossed the river Cha-ho, and a
desert that Marco Polo was to explore eight hundred years later.
After seventeen days' march they reached the Lake of Lobnor in
Turkestan. From this point all the countries that the monks visited
were alike as to manners and customs, the languages alone differing.
Being dissatisfied with the reception that they met with in the
country of the Ourgas, who are not a hospitable people, they took a
south-easterly course towards a desert country, where they had great
difficulty in crossing the rivers; and, after a thirty-five days'
march, the little caravan reached Tartary in the kingdom of Khotan,
which contained, according to Fa-Hian, "Many times ten thousand holy
men." Here they met with a cordial welcome, and after a residence of
three months were allowed to assist at the "Procession of the
Images," a great feast, in which both Brahmins and Buddhists join,
when all the idols are placed upon magnificently decorated cars, and
paraded through streets strewn with flowers, amid clouds of incense.
The feast over, the monks left Khotan for Koukonyar, and after
resting there fifteen days, we find them further south in the
Balistan country of the present day, a cold and mountainous district,
where wheat was the only grain cultivated, and where Fa-Hian found
in use the curious cylinders on which prayers are written, and which
are turned by the faithful with the most extraordinary rapidity.
Thence they went to the eastern part of Afghanistan; it took them
four weeks to cross the mountains, in the midst of which, and the
never-melting snow they are said to have found venomous dragons.
On the further side of this rocky chain the travellers found
themselves in Northern India, where the country is watered by the
streams which, further on, form the Sinde or Indus. After traversing
the kingdoms of On-tchang, Su-ho-to, and Kian-tho-wei, they arrived
at Fo-loo-cha, which must be the town of Peshawur, standing between
Cabul and the Indus, and twenty-four leagues farther west, they came
to the town of Hilo, built on the banks of a tributary of the river
Kabout. In these towns Fa-Hian specially notices the feasts and
religious ceremonies practised in the worship of Fo or Buddha.
[Illustration: One of Fa-Hian's companions falls.]
When the monks left Kito, they were obliged to cross the
Hindoo-Koosh mountains, lying between Turkestan and the Gandhara,
the cold being so intense that one of their party sank under it.
After enduring great hardships they reached Banoo, a town that is
still standing, and then, after again crossing the Indus, they
entered the Punjaub. Thence, descending towards the south-east, with
a view of crossing the northern part of the Indian Peninsula, they
reached Mathura, a town in the province of Agra, and crossing the
great salt desert which lies to the east of the Indus, travelled
through a country that Fa-Hian calls "a happy kingdom, where the
inhabitants are good and honest, needing neither laws nor
magistrates, and indebted to none for their support; without markets
or wine merchants, and living happily, with plenty of all that they
required, where the temperature was neither hot nor cold." This
happy kingdom was India. Fa-Hian followed a south-easterly route,
and came to Feroukh-abad, where Buddha is said to have alighted as
he came down from heaven, the Chinese traveller dwelling much upon
the Buddhist Creed. Thence he visited the town of Kanoji, standing
on the right bank of the Ganges, that he calls Heng, and this is the
very centre of Buddhism. Wherever Buddha is supposed to have rested,
his followers have erected high towers in his honour. The travellers
visited the temple of Tchihouan, where for twenty-five years Fo
practised the most severe mortifications, and where he is said to
have given sight to five hundred blind men. They are said to have
been much moved by the sight of this temple.
They set out again, passing Kapila and Goruckpoor, on the frontier
of Nepaul, all made famous by Fo's miracles, and then reached the
celebrated town of Palian-foo, in the delta of the Ganges, in the
kingdom of Magadha. This was a fertile tract of country inhabited by
a civilized, upright people, who loved all philosophic researches.
After climbing the peak of Vautour, which stands at the source of
the Dyardanes and Banourah rivers, Fa-Hian descended the Ganges,
visited the temple of Issi-paten that was frequented by magicians
and astrologers, reached Benares, "the kingdom of splendours," and a
little lower down, the town of Tomo-li-ti, situated at the mouth of
the river, a short distance from the site of Calcutta in the present
day.
Fa-Hian found a party of merchants just preparing to put to sea with
the intention of going to Ceylon; he sailed with them, and in
fourteen days landed on the shores of the ancient Taprobana, of
which the Greek merchant, Jamboulos, had given a curious account
some centuries previously. Here the Chinese monk found all the
traditions and legends regarding the god Fo, and passed two years in
searching ancient manuscripts. He left Ceylon for Java, where he
landed after a very rough voyage, in the course of which, when the
sky was overclouded, he says, "we saw nothing but great waves
dashing one against another, lightning, crocodiles, tortoises, and
monsters of the deep."
He spent five months in Java, and then set sail for Canton; but the
winds were again unfavourable, and after undergoing great hardships
he landed at the town of Chantoung of the present day; then having
spent some time at Nankin he returned to Fi-an-foo, his native town,
after an absence of eighteen months. Such is the account of
Fa-Hian's travels, which have been well translated by M. Abel de
Rémusat, and which give very interesting details of Indian and
Tartar customs, especially those relating to their religious
ceremonies.
The next traveller to the Chinese monk, in chronological order, is
an Egyptian called Cosmos Indicopleustes, a name that M. Charton
renders as "Cosmographic traveller in India." He lived in the sixth
century, and was a merchant of Alexandria, who, on his return from
visiting Ethiopia and part of Asia, entered a monastery.
His narrative is called the "Christian Topography of the Universe."
It gives no details of its author's voyages, but begins with
cosmographic discussions, to prove that the world is square, and
enclosed in a great oblong coffer with all the other planets. This
is followed by some dissertations on the function of the angels, and
a description of the dress of the Jewish Priests. Cosmos also gives
the natural history of the animals of India and Ceylon, and notices
the rhinoceros and buffalo, which can be made of use for domestic
purposes, the giraffe, the wild ox, the musk that is hunted for its
"perfumed blood," the unicorn, which he considers a real animal and
not a myth, the wild boar, the hippopotamus, the phoca, the dolphin,
and the tortoise. Afterwards, Cosmos describes the pepper-plant, as
a frail and delicate shrub, like the smallest tendrils of the vine,
and the cocoa-tree, whose fruit has a fragrance "equal to that of a
nut."
From the earliest times of the Christian era there has been a great
love for visiting the Holy Land, the cradle of the new religion.
These pilgrimages became more and more frequent, and we have many
names left to us of those who visited Palestine during the first
centuries of Christianity.
One of these pilgrims, the French Bishop Arculphe, who lived towards
the end of the seventh century, has left us an account of his
travels.
He sets out by giving a topographical description of the site of
Jerusalem, and describes the wall that surrounds the holy city, then
the circular church built over the Holy Sepulchre, the tomb of our
Lord Jesus Christ, and the stone that closed it, the church
dedicated to the Virgin Mary, the church built upon Calvary, and the
basilica of Constantine on the site of the place where the real
cross was found. These various churches are united in one building,
which also encloses the Tomb of Christ, and Calvary, where our Lord
was crucified.
Arculphe then descended into the Valley of Jehoshaphat, which is
situated to the east of the city, and contains the church that
covers the tomb of the Virgin; he also saw that of Absalom, which he
calls the Tower of Jehoshaphat. He describes the Mount of Olives
that faces the city beyond the valley, and he prayed in the cave
where Jesus prayed. He also went to Mount Zion, which stands outside
the town on the south side; he notices the gigantic fig-tree, on
which, according to tradition, Judas Iscariot hanged himself, and he
visited the church of the guest-chamber, now destroyed.
[Illustration: Absalom's Tomb.]
After making the tour of the city by the Valley of Siloam, and
ascending by the brook Cedron, the bishop returned to the Mount of
Olives, which was covered with waving wheat and barley, grass and
wild flowers, and he describes the place where Christ ascended from
the summit of the mountain. On this spot a large church has been
built, with three arched porticoes that are not roofed over or
covered in any way, but are open to the sky. "They have not roofed
in this church," says the bishop, "because it was the place whence
our Saviour ascended upon a cloud, and the space open to heaven
allows the prayers of the faithful to ascend thither. For when they
paved this church they could not lay the pavement over the place
where our Lord's feet had rested, as, when the stones were laid upon
that spot, the earth, as though impatient of anything not divine
resting upon it, threw them up again before the workmen. Beyond this,
the dust bears the impress of the divine feet, and though, day by
day, the faithful who visit the spot efface the marks, they
immediately reappear and may be seen perpetually."
After having explored the neighbourhood of Bethany in the midst of
the grove of olives, where the grave of Lazarus is said to be, and
where the church, standing on the right hand is supposed to mark the
spot where our Lord usually conversed with His disciples, Arculphe
went to Bethlehem, which is a short distance from the holy city. He
describes the birthplace of our Lord, a natural cave, hollowed out
of the rock at the eastern end of the village, the church, built by
St. Helena, the tombs of the three shepherds, upon whom the heavenly
light shone at the birth of our Saviour, the burial-places of the
patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and that of Rachel, and he
visited the oak of Mamre, under which Abraham received the visit of
the angels. Thence, Arculphe went to Jericho, or rather the place
where the town once stood, whose walls fell at the sound of Joshua's
trumpets. He explored the place where the children of Israel first
rested in the land of Canaan after crossing the river Jordan, and he
speaks of the church of Galgala, where the twelve stones are placed,
which the children of Israel took from the river when they entered
the promised land. He followed the course of the Jordan, and found
near one of the bends of the river on the right bank, and among the
most beautiful scenery, about an hour's walk from the Dead Sea, the
place where our Lord was baptized by St. John the Baptist. A cross
is placed to mark the spot, but when the river is swollen, it is
covered by the water.
After examining the banks of the Dead Sea and tasting its brackish
water, he viewed the source of the Jordan, at the foot of Libanus,
and explored the greater part of the Lake of Tiberias, visiting the
well where the woman of Samaria gave our Lord the water He so much
needed, seeing the fountain in the desert of which St. John the
Baptist drank, and the great plain of Gaza, where our Lord blessed
the five loaves and two fishes, and fed the multitude. Next he went
down to Capernaum, of which there are now no remains; then visited
Nazareth, where our Lord spent His childhood, and ended his journey
at Mount Tabor in Galilee.
The bishop's narrative contains both geographical and historical
accounts of other places, beyond those immediately connected with
our Lord's life on earth. He visited the royal city of Damascus,
which is watered by four large rivers. Also Tyre, the chief town of
Phoenicia, which, though once separated from the mainland, was
joined to it again by the jetty or pier made by the orders of
Nabuchodonosor. He speaks of Alexandria, once the capital of Egypt,
which he reached forty days after leaving Jaffa, and lastly, of
Constantinople, where he often visited the large church in which
"the wood of the cross is preserved, upon which the Saviour suffered
for the salvation of the human race."
The account of this journey was written by the Abbé de St. Columban
at the dictation of the bishop, and not many years afterwards the
same journey was undertaken by an English pilgrim, and accomplished
in much the same way. The name of this pilgrim was Willibald, a
member of a rich family living at Southampton, who, on his recovery
from a long illness, dedicated him to God's service. All his early
life was spent in holy exercises in the monastery of Woltheim; when
he was grown up he had the most intense wish to see St. Peter's at
Rome, and was so set upon this, that it induced his father, brother,
and young sister to wish to go there also; they embarked at
Southampton in the spring of 721, and making their way up the Seine,
they landed at Rouen. We have but few details of the journey to Rome,
but Willibald mentions that after passing through Cortona and Lucca,
at which latter place his father sank under the fatigue of the
journey and died, he reached Rome in safety with his brother and
sister, and passed the winter there, but they were all in turn
attacked with fever. When Willibald regained his health, he
determined to continue his journey to the Holy Land. He sent his
brother and sister back to England, while he joined some monks who
were going in the same direction as himself. They went by Terracina
and Gaeta to Naples, and set sail for Reggio in Calabria, and
Catania and Syracuse in Sicily, whence they again embarked, and,
after touching at Cos and Samos, landed at Ephesus in Asia Minor,
where they visited the tombs of St. John the Evangelist, of Mary
Magdalene, and of the seven sleepers of Ephesus, that is, seven
Christians martyred in the time of the Emperor Decius.
They made some stay at Patara and at Mitylene, and then went to
Cyprus and Paphos; we next find the party, seven in number, at
Edessa, visiting the tomb of St. Thomas the Apostle. Here they were
arrested as spies, and thrown into prison by the Saracens, but the
king, on the petition of a Spaniard, set them at liberty. As soon as
they were set free they left the town in great haste, and from that
time their route is almost the same as that of the Bishop Arculphe;
they visited Damascus, Nazareth, Cana, where they saw a wonderful
amphora on Mount Tabor, where our Lord was transfigured, and the
Lake of Tiberias, where St. Peter walked upon the water; Magdala,
where Lazarus and his sister dwelt; Capernaum, where our Lord raised
to life the son of the nobleman; Bethsaida in Galilee, the native
place of St. Peter and St. Andrew; Chorazin, where our Lord cured
those possessed with devils; Cæsarea, and the spot where our Lord
was baptized, as well as Jericho and Jerusalem.
They also went to the Valley of Jehoshaphat, the Mount of Olives,
and to Bethlehem, the scene of the murder of the Innocents by Herod,
and Gaza. While they were at Gaza, Willibald tells us that he
suddenly became blind, while he was in the church of St. Matthias,
and only recovered his sight two months afterwards, as he entered
the church of the Holy Cross at Jerusalem. He went through the
valley of Diospolis or Lydda, ten miles from Jerusalem, and then
went to Tyre and Sidon, and thence, by Libanus, Damascus, Cæsarea,
and Emmaus, back to Jerusalem, where the travellers spent the winter.
This was not to be the limit of their exploration, for we hear of
them at Ptolemais, Emesa, Jerusalem, Damascus, and Samaria, where St.
John the Baptist is said to have been buried, and at Tyre, where it
must be confessed that Willibald defrauded the revenue of that time
by smuggling some balsam that was very celebrated, and on which a
duty was levied. On quitting Tyre they went to Constantinople and
lived there for two years before returning by Sicily, Calabria,
Naples, and Capua. The English pilgrim reached the monastery of
Monte Cassino, just ten years after his first setting out on his
travels; but his time of rest had not yet come, as he was appointed
to a bishopric in Franconia by Pope Gregory III. He was forty-one
years of age when he was made bishop, and he lived forty years
afterwards. In 938 he was canonized by Leo VII.
We will conclude the list of celebrated travellers living between
the first and ninth centuries, by giving a short account of Soleyman,
a merchant of Bassorah, who, starting from the Persian Gulf, arrived
eventually on the shores of China. This narrative is in two distinct
parts, one written in 851, by Soleyman himself, who was the
traveller, and the other in 878 by a geographer named Abou-Zeyd
Hassan with the view of completing the first. Renaud, the
orientalist, is of opinion that this narrative "has thrown quite a
new light on the commercial transactions that existed in the ninth
century between Egypt, Arabia, and the countries bordering on the
Persian Gulf on one side, and the vast provinces of India and China
on the other."
Soleyman, as we have said, started from the Persian Gulf after
having taken in a good supply of fresh water at Muscat, and visited
first, the second sea, or that of Oman. He noticed a fish of
enormous size, probably a spermaceti whale, which the seamen
endeavoured to frighten away by ringing a bell, then a shark, in
whose stomach they found a smaller shark, enclosing in its turn one
still smaller, "both alive," says the traveller, which is manifestly
an exaggeration; then, after describing the remora, the dactyloptera,
and the porpoise, he speaks of the sea near the Maldive Islands in
which he counted an enormous number of islands, among them he
mentions Ceylon by its Arabian name, with its pearl fisheries;
Sumatra, inhabited by cannibals, and rich in gold-mines; Nicobar,
and the Andaman Islands, where cannibalism still exists even at the
present day. "This sea," he says, "is subject to fearful
water-spouts which wreck the ships, and throw on its shores an
immense number of dead fish and sometimes even large stones. When
these tempests are at their height the sea seethes and boils."
Soleyman imagined it to be infested by a sort of monster who preyed
upon human beings; this is thought to have been a kind of dog-fish.
[Illustration: Soleyman noticed a shark in whose stomach they found
a smaller shark.]
Arrived at Nicobar, Soleyman traded with the inhabitants, bartering
some iron for cocoa-nuts, sugar-cane, bananas, &c.; he then crossed
the sea, and seems to have made for Singapore, and northwards by the
Gulf of Siam. Soleyman put into a harbour, near Cape Varella, to
revictual his ships, and thence he went by the China Sea to
Jehan-fou the port of the present town of Tche-kiang. The remainder
of the account of Soleyman's travels, written by Abou-Zeyd Hassan,
contains a detailed account of the manners and customs of the
Indians and Chinese; but it is not the traveller himself who is
speaking, and we shall find the same subjects spoken of in a more
interesting manner by later authors.
We must add, in reviewing the discoveries made by travellers sixteen
centuries before, and nine centuries after, the Christian era, that
from Norway to the extreme boundaries of China, taking a line
through the Atlantic ocean, the Mediterranean Sea, the Red Sea, the
Indian Ocean, and the Sea of China, the immense extent of coast
bordering these seas had been in a great measure visited. Some
explorations had been attempted in the interior of these countries;
for instance, in Egypt as far as Ethiopia, in Asia Minor to the
Caucasus, in India and China; and if these old travellers may not
have quite understood mathematical precision, as to some of the
points they visited, at all events the manners and customs of the
inhabitants, the productions of the different countries, the mode of
trading with them, and their religious customs, were quite
sufficiently understood. Ships could sail with more safety when the
change of winds was no longer a subject of mere speculation, the
caravans could take a more direct route in the interior of the
countries, and the great increase of trade which took place in the
middle ages is surely owing to the facilities afforded by the
writings of travellers.
CHAPTER III.
CELEBRATED TRAVELLERS BETWEEN THE TENTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES.
BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, 1159-1173; PLAN DE CARPIN, OR CARPINI,
1245-1247; RUBRUQUIS, 1253-1254.
The Scandinavians in the North, Iceland and Greenland--Benjamin of
Tudela visits Marseilles, Rome, Constantinople, the Archipelago,
Palestine, Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Damascus, Baalbec, Nineveh, Baghdad,
Babylon, Bassorah, Ispahan, Shiraz, Samarcand, Thibet, Malabar,
Ceylon, the Red Sea, Egypt, Sicily, Italy, Germany, and France--
Carpini explores Turkestan--Manners and customs of the Tartars--
Rubruquis and the Sea of Azov, the Volga, Karakorum, Astrakhan, and
Derbend.
In the course of the tenth, and at the beginning of the eleventh
century, a considerable amount of ardour for exploration had arisen
in Northern Europe. Some Norwegians and adventurous Gauls had
penetrated to the Northern seas, and, if we may trust to some
accounts, they had gone as far as the White Sea and visited the
country of the Samoyedes. Some documents say that Prince Madoc may
have explored the American continent.
At all events we may be tolerably certain that Iceland was
discovered about A.D. 861 by some Scandinavian adventurers, and that
it was soon after colonized by Normans. About this same time a
Norwegian had taken refuge on a newly discovered land, and surprised
by its verdure he gave it the name of Greenland.
The communication with this portion of the American continent was
difficult and uncertain, and one geographer says "it took five years
for a vessel to go from Norway to Greenland, and to return from
Greenland to Norway." Sometimes in severe winters the Northern Ocean
was completely frozen over, and a certain Hollur-Geit, guided by a
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190
191
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237
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255
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365
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372
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393
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406
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412
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419
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448
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463
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597
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600
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650
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.
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,
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.
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