CELEBRATED TRAVELS AND TRAVELLERS.
THE GREAT EXPLORERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
BY JULES VERNE.
TRANSLATED BY N. D'ANVERS,
AUTHOR OF "HEROES OF NORTH AFRICAN DISCOVERY," "HEROES OF SOUTH AFRICAN
DISCOVERY," ETC.
London:
SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON, SEARLE, & RIVINGTON,
CROWN BUILDINGS, 188, FLEET STREET.
1881.
TO
DR. G. G. GARDINER,
-I Dedicate this Translation-
WITH SINCERE AND GRATEFUL ESTEEM.
N. D'ANVERS.
HENDON, -Christmas, 1880-.
TRANSLATOR'S NOTE.
In offering the present volume to the English public, the Translator
wishes to thank the Rev. Andrew Carter for the very great assistance
given by him in tracing all quotations from English, German, and other
authors to the original sources, and for his untiring aid in the
verification of disputed spellings, &c.
---------------------------------------------
THE GREAT EXPLORERS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
CHAPTER I.
THE DAWN OF A CENTURY OF DISCOVERY.
Slackness of discovery during the struggles of the Republic and
Empire--Seetzen's voyages in Syria and Palestine--Hauran and the
circumnavigation of the Dead Sea--Decapolis--Journey in Arabia--
Burckhardt in Syria--Expeditions in Nubia upon the two branches of the
Nile--Pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina--The English in India--Webb at the
Source of the Ganges--Narrative of a journey in the Punjab--Christie
and Pottinger in Scinde--The same explorers cross Beluchistan into
Persia--Elphinstone in Afghanistan--Persia according to Gardane, A.
Dupré, Morier, Macdonald-Kinneir, Price, and Ouseley--Guldenstædt and
Klaproth in the Caucasus--Lewis and Clarke in the Rocky Mountains--
Raffles in Sumatra and Java.
A sensible diminution in geographical discovery marks the close of the
eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries.
We have already noticed the organization of the Expedition sent in
search of La Pérouse by the French Republic, and also Captain Baudin's
important cruise along the Australian coasts. These are the only
instances in which the unrestrained passions and fratricidal struggles
of the French nation allowed the government to exhibit interest in
geography, a science which is especially favoured by the French.
At a later period, Bonaparte consulted several savants and
distinguished artists, and the materials for that grand undertaking
which first gave an idea (incomplete though it was) of the ancient
civilization of the land of the Pharaohs, were collected together. But
when Bonaparte had completely given place to Napoleon, the egotistical
monarch, sacrificing all else to his ruling passion for war, would no
longer listen to explorations, voyages, or possible discoveries. They
represented money and men stolen from him; and his expenditure of those
materials was far too great to allow of such futile waste. This was
clearly shown, when he ceded the last remnants of French colonial rule
in America to the United States for a few millions.
Happily other nations were not oppressed by the same iron hand.
Absorbed although they might be in their struggle with France, they
could still find volunteers to extend the range of geographical
science, to establish archæology upon scientific bases, and to
prosecute linguistic and ethnographical enterprise.
The learned geographer Malte-Brun, in an article published by him in
the "Nouvelles Annales des Voyages" in 1817, gives a minute account of
the condition of French geographical knowledge at the beginning of the
nineteenth century, and of the many desiderata of that science. He
reviews the progress already made in navigation, astronomy, and
languages. The India Company, far from concealing its discoveries, as
jealousy had induced the Hudson Bay Company to do, founded academies,
published memoirs, and encouraged travellers.
War itself was utilized, for the French army gathered a store of
precious material in Egypt. We shall shortly see how emulation spread
among the various nations.
From the commencement of the century, one country has taken the lead in
great discoveries. German explorers have worked so earnestly, and have
proved themselves possessed of will so strong and instinct so sure,
that they have left little for their successors to do beyond verifying
and completing their discoveries.
The first in order of time was Ulric Jasper Seetzen, born in 1767 in
East Friesland; he completed his education at Göttingen, and published
some essays upon statistics and the natural sciences, for which he had
a natural inclination. These publications attracted the attention of
the government, and he was appointed Aulic Councillor in the province
of Tever.
Seetzen's ambition, like that of Burckhardt subsequently, was an
expedition to Central Africa, but he wished previously to make an
exploration of Palestine and Syria, to which countries attention was
shortly to be directed by the "Palestine Association," founded in
London in 1805.
Seetzen did not wait for this period, but in 1802 set out for
Constantinople, furnished with suitable introductions.
Although many pilgrims and travellers had successively visited the Holy
Land and Syria, the vaguest notions about these countries prevailed.
Their physical geography was not determined, details were wanting, and
certain regions, as for example, the Lebanon and the Dead Sea had never
been explored.
Comparative geography did not exist. It has taken the unwearied efforts
of the English Association and the science of travellers in connexion
with it to erect that study into a science. Seetzen, whose studies had
been various, found himself admirably prepared to explore a country
which, often visited, was still in reality new.
Having travelled through Anatolia, Seetzen reached Aleppo in May, 1802.
He remained there a year, devoting himself to the practical study of
the Arabic tongue, making extracts from Eastern historians and
geographers, verifying the astronomical position of Aleppo, prosecuting
his investigations into natural history, collecting manuscripts, and
translating many of those popular songs and legends which are such
valuable aids to the knowledge of a nation.
Seetzen left Aleppo in 1805 for Damascus. His first expedition led him
across the provinces of Hauran and Jaulan, situated to the S.E. of that
town. No traveller had as yet visited these two provinces, which in the
days of Roman dominion had played an important part in the history of
the Jews, under the names of Auranitis and Gaulonitis. Seetzen was the
first to give an idea of their geography.
The enterprising traveller explored the Lebanon and Baalbek. He
prosecuted his discoveries south of Damascus, and entered Judea,
exploring the eastern portion of Hermon, the Jordan, and the Dead Sea.
This was the dwelling-place of those races well known to us in Jewish
history; the Ammonites, Moabites, and Gileadites. At the time of the
Roman conquest, the western portion of this country was known as Perea,
and was the centre of the celebrated Decapolis or confederacy of ten
cities. No modern traveller had visited these regions, a fact
sufficient to induce Seetzen to begin his exploration with them.
His friends at Damascus had tried to dissuade him from the journey, by
picturing the difficulties and danger of a route frequented by
Bedouins; but nothing could stay him. Before visiting the Decapolis
region and investigating the condition of its ruins, Seetzen traversed
a small district, named Ladscha, which bore a bad reputation at
Damascus on account of the Bedouins who occupied it, but which was said
to contain remarkable antiquities.
Leaving Damascus on the 12th of December, 1805, with an Armenian guide
who misled him from the first, Seetzen, having prudently provided
himself with a passport from the Pasha, proceeded from village to
village escorted by an armed attendant.
In a narrative published in the earlier "Annales des Voyages," says the
traveller,--
"That portion of Ladscha which I have seen is, like Hauran, entirely
formed of basalt, often very porous, and in many districts forming vast
stony deserts. The villages, which are mostly in ruins, are built on
the sides of the rocks. The black colour of the basalt, the ruined
houses, the churches and towers fallen into decay, with the total
dearth of trees and verdure, combine to give a sombre aspect to this
country, which strikes one almost with dread. In almost every village
are either Grecian inscriptions, columns, or other remnants of
antiquity; amongst others I copied an inscription of the Emperor Marcus
Aurelius. Here, as in Hauran, the doors were of basalt."
Seetzen had scarcely arrived at the village of Gerasa and enjoyed a
brief rest, before he was surrounded by half a score of mounted men,
who said they had come by order of the vice-governor of Hauran to
arrest him. Their master, Omar Aga, having learned that the traveller
had been seen in the country the preceding year, and imagining his
passports to be forgeries, had sent them to bring him before him.
Resistance was useless. Without allowing himself to be disconcerted by
an incident which he regarded as a simple contretemps, Seetzen
proceeded in the direction of Hauran, where after a day and a half's
journey he met Omar Aga, travelling with the Mecca caravan. The
travellers having received a hearty welcome, departed on the morrow,
but meeting upon his way with many troops of Arabs, upon whom his
demeanour imposed respect, he came to the conclusion that it had been
Omar Aga's intention to have him robbed.
Returning to Damascus, Seetzen had great trouble in finding a guide who
would accompany him in his expedition along the eastern shore of the
Jordan, and around the Dead Sea. At last, a certain Yusuf-al-Milky, a
member of the Greek church, who, for some thirty years, had carried on
traffic with the Arab tribes, and travelled in the provinces which
Seetzen desired to visit, agreed to bear him company.
The two travellers left Damascus on the 19th of January, 1806.
Seetzen's entire baggage consisted of a few clothes, some indispensable
books, paper for drying plants, and an assortment of drugs, necessary
to sustain his assumed character as a physician. He wore the dress of a
sheik of secondary rank.
The districts of Rasheiya and Hasbeiya, at the foot of Mount
Hermon--whose summit at the time was hidden by snow--were the first
explored by Seetzen, for the reason that they were the least known in
Syria.
He then visited Achha, a village inhabited by the Druses, upon the
opposite side of the mountain; Rasheiya, the residence of the Emir; and
Hasbeiya, where he paid a visit to the Greek Bishop of Szur or Szeida,
to whom he carried letters of recommendation. The object which chiefly
attracted his attention in this mountainous district, was an
asphalt-mine, whose produce is there used to protect the vines from
insects.
Leaving Hasbeiya, Seetzen proceeded to Bâniâs, the ancient Casaræa
Philippi, which is now a mere collection of huts. Even if traces of its
fortifications were discoverable, not the smallest remains could be
found of the splendid temple erected by Herod in honour of Augustus.
Ancient authorities hold that the river of Bâniâs is the source of the
Jordan, but in reality that title belongs to the river Hasbany, which
forms the larger branch of the Jordan. Seetzen recognized it, as he
also did the Lake of Merom, or the ancient Samachonitis.
Here he was deserted by his muleteers, whom nothing could induce to
accompany him so far as the bridge of Jisr-Benat-Yakûb, and also by his
guide Yusuf, whom he was forced to send by the open road to await his
arrival at Tiberias, while he himself proceeded on foot towards the
celebrated bridge, accompanied by a single Arab attendant.
He, however, found no one at Jisr-Benat-Yakûb who was willing to
accompany him along the eastern shore of the Jordan, until a native,
believing him to be a doctor, begged him to go and see his sheik, who
was suffering from ophthalmia, and who lived upon the eastern bank of
the Lake of Tiberias.
Seetzen gladly availed himself of this opportunity; and it was well he
did so, for he was thus enabled to study the Lake of Tiberias and also
the Wady Zemmâk at his leisure, not, however, without risk of being
robbed and murdered by his guide. Finally he reached Tiberias, called
by the Arabs Tabaria, where he found Yusuf, who had been waiting for
him for several days.
"The town of Tiberias," says Seetzen, "is situated upon the lake of the
same name. Upon the land side it is surrounded by a good wall of cut
basalt rock, but nevertheless, it scarcely deserves to be called a
town. No trace of its earlier splendour remains, but the ruins of the
more ancient city, which extended to the Thermæ, a league to the
eastward, are recognizable.
"The famous Djezar-Pasha caused a bath to be erected above the
principal spring. If these baths were in Europe, they would rival all
those now existing. The valley in which the lake is situated, is so
sheltered, and so warm, that dates, lemon-trees, oranges, and indigo,
flourish there, whilst on the high ground surrounding it, the products
of more temperate climates might be grown."
South-west of the lake are the remains of the ancient city of Tarichæa.
There, between two mountain chains, lies the beautiful plain of El
Ghor, poorly cultivated, and overrun by Arab hordes. No incident of
moment marked Seetzen's journey to Decapolis, during which he was
obliged to dress as a mendicant, to escape the rapacity of the native
tribes.
"Over my shirt" he relates, "I wore an old kambas, or dressing-gown,
and above that a woman's ragged chemise; my head was covered with rags,
and my feet with old sandals. I was protected from cold and wet by an
old ragged 'abbaje,' which I wore across my shoulders, and a stick cut
from a tree served me as a staff; my guide, who was a Greek Christian,
was dressed much in the same style; and together we scoured the country
for some ten days, often hindered in our journey by chilling rains,
which wetted us to the skin. For my part, I travelled an entire day in
the mud with bare feet, because I could not wear my sandals upon sodden
ground."
Draa which he reached a little farther on, presented but a mass of
desert ruins; and no trace of the monuments which rendered it famous in
earlier days, were visible. El-Botthin, the next district, contains
hundreds of caverns, hewn in the rocks, which were occupied by the
ancient inhabitants. It was much the same at Seetzen's visit. That Mkês
was formerly a rich and important city, is proved by its many ruined
tombs and monuments. Seetzen identified it with Gadara, one of the
minor towns of the Decapolis. Some leagues beyond are the ruins of Abil
or Abila. Seetzen's guide, Aoser, refused to go there, being afraid of
the Arabs. The traveller was, therefore, obliged to go alone.
"This town," he says, "is entirely in ruins and abandoned. Not a single
building remains; but its ancient splendour is sufficiently proved by
ruins. Traces of the old fortifications remain, and also many pillars
and arches of marble, basalt, and granite. Beyond the walls, I found a
great number of pillars; two of them were of an extraordinary size.
Hence I concluded that a large temple had formerly existed there."
On leaving El-Botthin, Seetzen entered the district of Edschlun, and
speedily discovered the important ruins of Dscherrasch, which may be
compared with those of Palmyra and Baalbek.
"It is difficult to conjecture," says Seetzen, "how this town, which
was formerly so celebrated, has hitherto escaped the attention of
antiquarians. It is situated in an open plain, which is fertile, and
watered by a river. Several tombs, with fine bas-reliefs arrested my
attention before I entered it; upon one of them, I remarked a Greek
inscription. The walls, which were of cut marble, are entirely crumbled
away, but their length over three quarters of a league, is still
discernible. No private house has been preserved, but I remarked
several public buildings of fine architectural design. I found two
magnificent amphitheatres constructed of solid marble, the columns,
niches, &c., in good condition, a few palaces, and three temples; one
of the latter having a peristyle of twelve large Corinthian pillars, of
which eleven were still erect. In one of these temples I found a fallen
column of the finest polished Egyptian granite. Beside these, I found
one of the city gates, formed of three arches, and ornamented with
pilasters, in good preservation. The finest of the remains is a street
adorned throughout its length with Corinthian columns on either side,
and terminating in a semicircle, which was surrounded by sixty Ionic
columns, all of the choicest marble. This street was crossed by
another, and at the junction of the two, large pedestals of wrought
stone occupied each angle, probably in former times these bore statues.
Much of the pavement was constructed of hewn stone. Altogether I
counted nearly two hundred columns, still in a fair state of
preservation; but the number of these is far exceeded by those which
have fallen into decay, for I saw only half the extent of the town, and
in all probability the other half beyond this was also rich in
remarkable relics."
From Seetzen's description, Dscherrasch would appear to be identical
with the ancient Gerasa, a town which up to that time had been
erroneously placed on the maps.
The traveller crossed Gerka--the Jabok of Jewish history--which forms
the northern boundary of the country of the Ammonites, and penetrated
into the district of El-Belka, formerly a flourishing country, but
which he found uncultivated and barren, with but one small town, Szalt,
formerly known as Amathus. Afterwards Seetzen visited Amman, a town
which, under the name of Philadelphia, is renowned among the
decapolitan cities, and where many antiquities are to be found, Eleal,
an ancient city of the Amorites, Madaba, called Madba in the time of
Moses, Mount Nebo, Diban, Karrak, the country of the Moabites, and the
ruins of Robba, (Rabbath) anciently the royal residence. After much
fatigue, he reached the region situated at the southern extremity of
the Dead Sea, named Gor-es-Sophia.
The heat was extreme, and great salt-plains, where no watercourses
exist, had to be crossed. Upon the 6th of April, Seetzen arrived in
Bethlehem, and soon afterwards at Jerusalem, having suffered greatly
from thirst, but having passed through most interesting countries,
hitherto unvisited by any modern traveller.
[Illustration: Jerusalem.]
[Illustration: Map of Egypt, Nubia, and part of Arabia.]
He had also collected much valuable information respecting the nature
of the waters of the Dead Sea, refuted many false notions, corrected
mistakes upon the most carefully constructed maps, identified several
sites of the ancient Peræa, and established the existence of numberless
ruins, which bore witness to the prosperity of all this region under
the sway of the Roman Empire. Upon the 25th of June, 1806, Seetzen left
Jerusalem, and returned to St. Jean d'Acre by sea.
In an article in the -Revùe Germanique- for 1858, M. Vinen speaks of
his expedition as a veritable journey of discovery. Seetzen, however,
was unwilling to leave his discoveries incomplete. Ten months later, he
again visited the Dead Sea, and added largely to his observations. From
thence he proceeded to Cairo, where he remained for two years, and
bought a large portion of the oriental manuscripts which now enrich the
library of Gotha. He collected many facts about the interior of the
country, choosing instinctively those only which could be amply
substantiated.
Seetzen, with his insatiable thirst for discovery, could not remain
long in repose, far removed from idleness though it was. In April,
1809, he finally left the capital of Egypt, and directed his course
towards Suez and the peninsula of Sinai, which he resolved to explore
before proceeding to Arabia. At this time Arabia was a little-known
country, frequented only by merchants trading in Mocha coffee-beans.
Before Niebuhr's time no scientific expedition for the study of the
geography of the country or the manners and customs of the inhabitants
had been organized.
This expedition owed its formation to Professor Michälis, who was
anxious to obtain information which would throw light on certain
passages in the Bible, and its expenses were defrayed by the generosity
of King Frederick V. of Denmark. It comprised Von Hannen, the
mathematician, Forskaal, the naturalist, a physician named Cramer,
Braurenfeind, the painter, and Niebuhr, the engineer, a company of
learned and scientific men, who thoroughly fulfilled all expectations
founded upon their reputations.
In the course of two years, from 1762 to 1764, they visited Egypt,
Mount Sinai, Jeddah, landed at Loheia, and advancing into Arabia Felix,
explored the country in accordance with the speciality of each man. But
the enterprising travellers succumbed to illness and fatigue, and
Niebuhr alone survived to utilize the observations made by himself and
his companions. His work on the subject is an inexhaustible treasury,
which may be drawn upon in our own day with advantage.
Seetzen, therefore, had much to achieve to eclipse the fame of his
predecessor. He omitted no means of doing so. After publicly professing
the faith of Islam, he embarked at Suez for Mecca, and hoped to enter
that city disguised as a pilgrim. Tor and Jeddah were the places
visited by him before he travelled to the holy city of Mecca. He was
much impressed by the wealth of the faithful and the peculiar
characteristics of that city, which lives for and by the Mahometan
cultus. "I was seized," says the traveller, "with an emotion which I
have never experienced elsewhere."
It is alike unnecessary to dwell upon this portion of the voyage and
upon that relating to the excursion to Medina. Burckhardt's narrative
gives a precise and trustworthy account of those holy places, and
besides, there remain of Seetzen's works only the extracts published in
"Les Annales des Voyages," and in the Correspondence of the Baron de
Zach. The Journal of Seetzen's travels was published in German, and in
a very incomplete manner, only in 1858.
The traveller returned from Medina to Mecca, and devoted himself to a
secret study of the town, with its religious ceremonies, and to taking
astronomical observations, which determined the position of the capital
of Islam.
Seetzen returned to Jeddah on the 23rd March, 1810. He then
re-embarked, with the Arab who had been his guide to Mecca, for
Hodeidah, which is one of the principal ports of Yemen. Passing the
mountainous district of Beith-el-Fakih, where coffee is cultivated,
after a month's delay at Doran on account of illness, Seetzen entered
Sana, the capital of Yemen, which he calls the most beautiful city of
the East, on the 2nd of June. Upon the 22nd of July he reached Aden,
and in November he was at Mecca, whence the last letters received from
him are dated. Upon re-entering Yemen, he, like Niebuhr, was robbed of
his collections and baggage, upon the pretext that he collected
animals, in order to compose a philtre, with the intention of poisoning
the springs.
Seetzen, however, would not quietly submit to be robbed. He started at
once for Sana, intending to lay a complaint before the Iman. This was
in December, 1811. A few days later news of his sudden death arrived at
Taes, and the tidings soon reached the ears of the Europeans who
frequented the Arabian ports.
It is little to the purpose now to inquire upon whom the responsibility
of this death rests--whether upon the Iman or upon those who had
plundered the traveller--but we may well regret that so thorough an
explorer, already familiar with the habits and customs of the Arabs,
was unable to continue his explorations, and that the greater portion
of his diaries and observations have been entirely lost.
"Seetzen," says M. Vivien de Saint Martin, "was the first traveller
since Ludovico Barthema (1503) who visited Mecca, and before his time
no European had even seen the holy city of Medina, consecrated by the
tomb of the Prophet."
From these remarks we gather how invaluable the trustworthy narrative
of this disinterested and well-informed traveller would have been.
Just as an untimely death ended Seetzen's self-imposed mission,
Burckhardt set out upon a similar enterprise, and like him commenced
his long and minute exploration of Arabia by preliminary travel through
Syria.
"It is seldom in the history of science," says M. Vivien de Saint
Martin, "that we see two men of such merit succeed each other in the
same career or rather continue it; for in reality Burckhardt followed
up the traces Seetzen had opened out, and, seconded for a considerable
time by favourable circumstances which enabled him to prosecute his
explorations, he was enabled to add very considerably to the known
discoveries of his predecessor."
Although John Lewis Burckhardt was not English, for he was a native of
Lausanne, he must none the less be classed among the travellers of
Great Britain. It was owing to his relations with Sir Joseph Banks, the
naturalist who had accompanied Cook, and Hamilton, the secretary of the
African Association, who gave him ready and valuable support, that
Burckhardt was enabled to accomplish what he did.
Burckhardt was a deeply learned man. He had passed through the
universities of Leipzic, and Göttingen, where he attended Blumenbach's
lectures, and afterwards through Cambridge, where he studied Arabic. He
started for the East in 1809. To inure himself to the hardships of a
traveller's life, he imposed long fasts upon himself, accustomed
himself to endure thirst, and chose the pavements of London or dusty
roads for a resting-place. But how trifling were these experiences in
comparison with those involved in an apostolate of science!
Leaving London for Syria, where he hoped to perfect his knowledge of
Arabic, Burckhardt intended to proceed to Cairo and to reach Fezzan by
the route formerly opened up by Hornemann. Once arrived in that
country, circumstances must determine his future course.
Burckhardt, having taken the name of Ibrahim-Ibn-Abdallah, intended to
pass as an Indian Mussulman. In order to carry out this disguise, he
had recourse to many expedients. In an obituary notice of him in the
"Annales des Voyages," it is related that when unexpectedly called upon
to speak the Indian language, he immediately had recourse to German. An
Italian dragoman, suspecting him of being a giaour, pulled him by his
beard, thereby offering him the greatest insult possible in his
character of Mussulman. But Burckhardt had so thoroughly entered into
the spirit of his rôle, that he responded by a vigorous blow, which
sending the unfortunate dragoman spinning to a distance, turned the
laugh against him, and thoroughly convinced the bystanders of the
sincerity of the traveller.
[Illustration: Portrait of Burckhardt. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
Burckhardt remained at Aleppo from September, 1809, to February, 1812,
pursuing his studies of Syrian manners and customs, and of the language
of the country, with but one interruption, a six months' excursion to
Damascus, Palmyra, and the Hauran, a country which had hitherto been
visited by Seetzen only.
It is related that, during an excursion into Gor, a district north of
Aleppo, upon the shores of the Euphrates, the traveller was robbed of
his baggage and stripped of his clothes by a band of robbers. When
nothing remained to him but his trousers, the wife of a chief, who had
not received her share of the spoil, wished to relieve him even of
those indispensable garments!
The -Revue Germanique- says:--"We owe a great deal of information to
these excursions, respecting a country of which we had only crude
notions, gained from Seetzen's incomplete communications. Burckhardt's
power of close observation detected a number of interesting facts, even
in well-known districts, which had escaped the notice of other
travellers. These materials were published by Colonel Martin William
Leake, himself a geographer, a man of learning, and a distinguished
traveller."
Burckhardt had seen Palmyra and Baalbek, the slopes of Lebanon and the
valley of the Orontes, Lake Huleh, and the sources of the Jordan; he
had discovered many ancient sites; and his observations had led
especially to the discovery of the site of the far-famed Apamoea,
although both he and his publisher were mistaken in their application
of the data obtained. His excursions in the Auranitis were equally
rich, even though coming after Seetzen's, in those geographical and
archæological details which represent the actual condition of a
country, and throw a light upon the comparative geography of every age.
Leaving Damascus in 1813, Burckhardt visited the Dead Sea, the valley
of Akâba, and the ancient port of Azcongater, districts which in our
own day are traversed by parties of English, with their -Murray-,
-Cook-, or -Bædeker- in their hands; but which then were only to be
visited at the risk of life. In a lateral valley, the traveller came
upon the ruins of Petra, the ancient capital of Arabia Petræa.
At the end of the year Burckhardt was at Cairo. Judging it best not to
join the caravan which was just starting for Fezzan, he felt a great
inclination to visit Nubia, a country rich in attractions for the
historian, geographer, and archæologist. Nubia, the cradle of Egyptian
civilization, had only been visited, since the days of the Portuguese
Alvares, by Poncet and Lenoir Duroule, both Frenchmen, at the close of
the seventeenth century, at the opening of the eighteenth by Bruce,
whose narrative had so often been doubted, and by Norden, who had not
penetrated beyond Derr.
In 1813 Burckhardt explored Nubia proper, including Mahass and
Kemijour. This expedition cost him only forty-two francs, a very paltry
sum in comparison with the price involved in the smallest attempt at an
African journey in our own day; but we must not forget that Burckhardt
was content to live upon millet-seed, and that his entire -cortége-
consisted of two dromedaries.
Two Englishmen, Mr. Legh and Mr. Smelt, were travelling in the country
at the same time, scattering gold and presents as they passed, and thus
rendering the visits of their successors costly.
Burckhardt crossed the cataracts of the Nile. "A little farther on,"
says the narrative, "near a place called Djebel-Lamoule, the Arab
guides practise a curious extortion." This is their plan of proceeding.
They halt, descend from their camels, and arrange a little heap of sand
and pebbles, in imitation of a Nubian tomb. This they, call "-preparing
the grave for the traveller-" and follow up the demonstration by an
imperious demand for money. Burckhardt having watched his guide
commence this operation, began quietly to imitate him, and then said,
"Here is thy grave; as we are brothers, it is but fair that we should
be buried together." The Arab could not help laughing, both graves were
simultaneously destroyed, and remounting the camels, the cavalcade
proceeded, better friends than before. The Arab quoted a saying from
the Koran: "No human being knows in what spot of the earth he will find
his grave."
[Illustration: "Here is thy grave."]
Burckhardt had hoped to get as far as Dingola, but was obliged to rest
satisfied with collecting information about the country and the
Mamelukes, who had taken refuge there after the massacre of their army
by order of the viceroy of Egypt.
The attention of the traveller was frequently directed to the ruins of
temples and ancient cities, than which none are more curious than those
of Isambul.
"The temple on the banks of the Nile is approached by an avenue flanked
by six colossal figures, which measure six feet and a half from the
ground to the knees. They are representations of Isis and Osiris, in
various attitudes. The sides and capitals of the pillars are covered
with paintings or hieroglyphic carvings, in which Burckhardt thought a
very ancient style was to be traced. All these are hewn out of the
rock, and the faces appear to have been painted yellow, with black
hair. Two hundred yards from this temple are the ruins of a still
larger monument, consisting of four enormous figures, so deeply buried
in the sand that it is impossible to say whether they are in a standing
or sitting posture."
These descriptions of antiquities, which in our own day are accurately
known by drawings and photographs, have, however, little value for us;
and are merely interesting as indicating the state of the ruins when
Burckhardt visited them, and enabling us to judge how far the
depredations of the Arabs have since changed them.
Burckhardt's first excursion was limited to the borders of the Nile, a
narrow space made up of little valleys, which debouched into the river.
The traveller estimated the population of the country at 100,000,
distributed over a surface of fertile land 450 miles in length, by a
quarter of a mile in width.
"The men," says the narrative, "are, as a rule, muscular, rather
shorter than the Egyptians, having little beard or moustache, usually
merely a pointed beard under the chin. They have a pleasant expression,
are superior to the Egyptians in courage and intelligence, and
naturally inquisitive. They are not thieves. They occasionally pick up
a fortune by dint of hard work, but they have little enterprise. Women
share the same physical advantages, are pretty as a rule, and well
made; their appearance is gentle and pleasing, and they are modest in
behaviour. M. Denon has underrated the Nubians, but it must not be
forgotten that their physique varies in different districts. Where
there is much land to cultivate, they are well developed; but in
districts where arable land is a mere strip, the people diminish in
vigour, and are sometimes walking skeletons."
The whole country groaned under the yoke of the Kashefs, who were
descendants of the commander of the Bosniacs, and paid only a small
annual tribute to Egypt, which, however, was sufficient to serve as a
pretext for oppressing the unfortunate fellaheen. Burckhardt cites a
curious example of the insolence with which the Kashefs behaved.
"Hassan Kashef," he says, was in need of barley for his horses.
Accompanied by his slaves, he walked into the fields, and there met the
owner of a fine plot of barley. "How badly you cultivate your land,"
said he. "Here you plant barley in a field where you might have reaped
an excellent crop of water-melons of double the value. See, here are
some melon-seeds (offering a handful to the peasant proprietor); sow
your field with these; and you, slaves, tear up this bad barley and
bring it to me."
In March, 1814, after a short rest, Burckhardt undertook a fresh
exploration, not this time of the banks of the Nile, but of the Nubian
desert. Justly conceiving poverty to be his surest safe guard, he
dismissed his servant, sold his camel, and contenting himself with one
ass, joined a caravan of poor traders. The caravan started from Daraou,
a village inhabited partly by fellahs and partly by Ababdéh Arabs. The
traveller had good reason to complain of the former, not because they
recognized him as a European, but because they imagined him to be a
Syrian Turk, come to share the commerce in slaves of which they had the
monopoly.
It would be useless to enumerate the names of the bridges, hills, and
valleys in this desert. We will rather summarize the traveller's report
of the physical aspect of the country.
Bruce, who had explored it, paints it in too gloomy colours, and
exaggerates the difficulties of the route. If Burckhardt is to be
credited, the country is less barren than that between Aleppo and
Bagdad, or Damascus and Medina. The Nubian desert is not merely a plain
of sand, where nothing interrupts the dreary monotony. It is
interspersed with rocks, some not less than 300 feet in height, and
shaded by thickets of acacias or date-trees. The shelter of these trees
is, however, unavailing against the vertical rays of the sun, which
explains an Arabic proverb, "Rely upon the favour of the great and the
shade of an acacia."
At Ankheyre, or Wady-Berber, the caravan reached the Nile, after
passing Shigre, one of the best mountain springs. One danger only is to
be feared in crossing the desert; that of finding the wells at Nedjeym
dry; and, unless the traveller should lose his way, which, however,
with trustworthy guides, is little likely to happen, no serious
obstacle arises.
It would appear, therefore, that the sufferings experienced by Bruce
must have been greatly exaggerated, although the narrative of the
Scotch traveller is generally trustworthy. The natives of the province
of Berber appear to be identical with the Barbarins of Bruce, the
Barabas mentioned by D'Anville, and the Barauras spoken of by Poncet.
They are a well-made race, and different in feature from the negroes.
They maintain their purity of descent by marrying only with the women
of their own or of kindred tribes. Curious as is the picture Burckhardt
draws of the character and manners of this tribe, it is not at all
edifying. It would be difficult to convey an idea of the corruption and
degradation of the Berbers. The little town of Wady-Berber, a
commercial centre, the rendezvous for caravans, and a depôt for slaves,
is a regular resort of banditti.
Burckhardt, who had trusted to the protection of the merchants of
Daraou, found that he had made a great mistake in so doing. They sought
every means of plundering him, chased him out of their company, and
forced him to seek refuge with the guides and donkey-drivers, who
cordially welcomed him.
Upon the 10th of April a fine was levied upon the caravan by the Mek of
Damer, which lies a little south of the tributary Mogren (called Mareb
by Bruce). This is a well-kept and cleanly Fakir village, which
contrasts agreeably with the ruins and filth of Berber. The Fakirs give
themselves up to the practices of sorcery, magic, and charlatanism. One
of them, it is said, could even make a lamb bleat in the stomach of the
man who had stolen and eaten it! These ignorant people have entire
faith in such fables, and it must be reluctantly admitted that the fact
contributes not a little to the peace of the town and the prosperity of
the country.
From Damer, Burckhardt proceeded to Shendy, where he passed a month,
during which time no one suspected him to be an infidel. Shendy had
grown in importance since Bruce's visit, and now consisted of about a
thousand houses. Considerable trade was carried on--grass, slaves, and
cattle taking the place of specie. The principal marketable commodities
were gum, ivory, gold, and ostrich feathers.
According to Burckhardt, the number of slaves sold yearly at Shendy
amounts to 5000; 2500 of these are for Arabia, 400 for Egypt, 1000 for
Dongola and the districts of the Red Sea.
The traveller employed his time during his stay at Sennaar in
collecting information about that kingdom. Amongst other curious
things, he was told that the king having one day invited the ambassador
of Mehemet Ali to a cavalry review, which he considered rather
formidable, the envoy in his turn begged the king to witness part of
the Turkish artillery exercises. But at the outset of the
performance--at the discharge of two small mounted guns--cavalry,
infantry, spectators, courtiers, and the king himself, fled in terror.
Burckhardt sold his wares, and then, worn out by the persecutions of
the Egyptian merchants who were his companions, he joined the caravan
at Suakin, intending to traverse the unknown district between that town
and Shendy. From Suakin he meant to set out for Mecca, hoping to find
the Hadji useful to him in the realization of his projects.
"The Hadji," he says, "form one powerful body, and every member is
protected, because if one is attacked the whole number take up arms."
The caravan which Burckhardt now joined consisted of 150 merchants and
300 slaves. Two hundred camels were employed to convey heavy bales of
"danmour," a stuff manufactured in Sennaar, and cargoes of tobacco.
The first object of interest to the travellers was the Atbara, a
tributary of the Nile, whose banks, with their verdant trees, were
grateful to the eye after the sandy desert. The course of the river was
followed as far as the fertile district of Taka. During the journey the
white skin of the pretended sheik Ibrahim (it will be remembered that
this was the name assumed by Burckhardt) attracted much attention from
the female population, who were little accustomed to the sight of
Arabs.
"One day," relates the traveller, "a girl of the country, of whom I had
been buying onions, offered to give me an extra quantity if I would
remove my turban, and show her my head. I demanded eight more onions,
which she immediately produced. As I removed my turban, and exposed my
white and close-shaven head to view, she sprang back in horror and
dismay. I asked her jokingly if she would not like a husband with a
similar head, to which she replied with much energy, and many
expressions of disgust, that she would prefer the ugliest slave ever
brought from Darfur."
Just before Goz Radjeh was reached, Burckhardt's attention was
attracted to a building, which he was told was either a church or
temple, the same word having the two meanings. He at once proceeded in
that direction, hoping to examine it, but his companions stopped him,
saying, "It is surrounded by bands of robbers; you cannot go a hundred
steps without danger of attack."
Burckhardt was unable to decide whether it was an Egyptian temple, or a
monument of the empire of Axum.
At last the caravan entered the fertile district of Tak or El Gasch, a
wide watered plain, whose soil is wonderfully fertile, but which for
two months in the year is uninhabited. Grain is plentiful and is sold
in Jeddah for twenty per cent. more than the best Egyptian millet.
The inhabitants, who are called Hadendoa, are treacherous, dishonest,
and bloodthirsty; and their women are almost as degraded as those of
Shendy and Berber.
Upon leaving Taka, the road to Suakin and the shores of the Red Sea lay
over a chain of chalk hills. At Schenterab granite is found. The hills
presented few difficulties, and the caravan reached Suakin in safety
upon the 26th May. But Burckhardt's troubles were not yet at an end.
The Emir and Aga combined to plunder him, and treated him as the lowest
of slaves, until he produced the firman which he had received from
Mehemet Ali and Ibrahim Pasha. This changed the face of affairs.
Instead of being thrown into prison the traveller was invited to the
Aga's, who offered him a present of a young slave. M. Vivien de Saint
Martin writes of this expedition, "This journey of from twenty to
twenty-five days, between the Nile and the Red Sea, was the first ever
undertaken by a European. The observations collected, as to the settled
or nomad tribes of these districts are invaluable for Europe.
Burckhardt's narrative is of increasing interest, and few can compare
with it for instruction and interest."
Upon the 7th of July Burckhardt succeeded in embarking in a boat, and
eleven days later he reached Jeddah, which serves as a harbour to
Mecca. Jeddah is built upon the sea-shore, and is surrounded by a wall,
which, insufficient as it would be against artillery, protects it
perfectly from the attacks of the Wahabees, who have been nicknamed the
"Puritans of Islamism." These people are a distinct sect, who claim to
restore Mahomedanism to its primitive simplicity.
"The entrance to the town, upon the side nearest the sea," says
Burckhardt, "is protected by a battery which overlooks the entire fort,
and is surmounted by one enormous piece of artillery capable of
discharging a five-hundred pound shot, which is so renowned throughout
the Arabian Gulf, that its reputation alone is enough to protect
Jeddah."
The greatest drawback to this city is its want of fresh water, which is
brought from small wells two miles distant. Without gardens,
vegetables, or date-trees, Jeddah, in spite of its population of twelve
or fifteen thousand (a number which is doubled in the pilgrimage
season) presents a strange appearance. The population is the reverse of
autochthonous; it is composed of natives of Hadramaut and Yemen,
Indians from Surat and Bombay, and Malays who come as pilgrims and
settle in the town. Burckhardt introduces many anecdotes of interest
into his account of the manners, mode of living, price of commodities,
and number of traders in the place.
[Illustration: Merchant of Jeddah. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
Speaking of the singular customs of the natives of Jeddah, he
says:--"It is the almost universal custom for everybody to swallow a
cup full of ghee or melted butter in the morning. After this they take
coffee, which they regard as a strong tonic; and they are so accustomed
to this habit from their earliest years, that they feel greatly
inconvenienced if they discontinue it. The higher classes are satisfied
with drinking the cup of butter, but the lower classes add another half
cup, which they draw up through the nostrils, imagining that they thus
prevent bad air entering the body by those apertures."
The traveller left Jeddah for Tayf on the 24th of August. The road
winds over mountains and across valleys of romantic beauty and
luxuriant verdure. Burckhardt was taken for an English spy at Tayf,
and, although he was well received by the Pasha, he had no liberty, and
could not carry on his observations.
Tayf, it appears, is famous for the beauty of its gardens; roses and
grapes are sent from it into all the districts of Hedjaz. This town had
a considerable trade, and was very prosperous before it was plundered
by the Wahabees.
[Illustration: Shores and boats of the Red Sea.]
The surveillance to which he was subjected hastened Burckhardt's
departure, and upon the 7th of September he started for Mecca. Well
versed in the study of the Koran, and acquainted with all the practices
of Islamism, he was prepared to act the part of a pilgrim. His first
care was to dress himself in accordance with the law prescribed for the
faithful who enter Mecca--in the "ihram," or pieces of cloth without
seam, one covering the loins, the other thrown over the neck and
shoulders. The pilgrim's first duty is to proceed to the temple,
without waiting even to procure a lodging. This Burckhardt did not fail
to do, observing at the same time the rites and ceremonies prescribed
in such cases, of which he gives many interesting particulars; we
cannot, however, dwell upon them here.
"Mecca," says Burckhardt, "may be called a pretty town. As a rule, the
streets are wider than in most Eastern cities. The houses are lofty and
built of stone; and its numerous windows, opening upon the street, give
it a more cheerful and European aspect than the cities of Egypt or
Syria, whose dwellings generally have few windows on the outside. Every
house has a terrace built of stone, and sloping in such a way as to
allow water to run down the gutters into the street. Low walls with
parapets conceal these terraces; for, as everywhere else in the East,
it is not thought right for a man to appear there; he would be accused
of spying upon the women, who spend much of their time upon the terrace
of the house, engaged in domestic work, drying corn, hanging out linen,
&c."
The only public place in the city is the large court of the Grand
Mosque. Trees are rare; not a garden enlivens the view, and the scene
depends for animation upon the well-stocked shops which abound during
the pilgrimage. With the exception of four or five large houses
belonging to the administration, two colleges, which have since been
converted into warehouses for corn, and the mosque with the few
buildings and colleges connected with it, Mecca can boast of no public
buildings, and cannot compete in this respect with other cities in the
East of the same size.
The streets are unpaved; and as drains are unknown, water collects in
puddles, and the accumulation of mud is inconceivable. For a water
supply the natives trust to heaven, catching the rain in cisterns, for
that obtained from the wells is so foul that it is impossible to drink
it.
In the centre of the town, where the valley widens a little, the mosque
known as Beithóu'llah, or El Haram, is situated. This edifice owes its
fame to the Kaaba which is enclosed in it, for other Eastern towns can
boast of mosques equally large and more beautiful. El Haram is situated
in an oblong space, surrounded on the eastern side by a quadruple
colonnade, and by a triple one on the other. The columns are connected
by pointed arches, upon each four stand little domes constructed of
mortar and whitened outside. Some of these columns are of white marble,
granite, or porphyry, but the greater part are of the common stone
found among the mountains of Mecca.
The Kaaba has been so often ruined and restored that no trace of a
remote antiquity remains. It was in existence before this mosque was
built.
The traveller says, "The Kaaba is placed upon an inclined base some two
feet high, and its roof being flat, it presents the appearance at a
little distance of a perfect cube. The only door by which it can be
entered, and which is opened two or three times a year, is on the north
side, about seven feet above the ground, for which reason one cannot
enter except by means of a wooden staircase. The famous 'black stone'
is enshrined at the north-eastern corner of the Kaaba, near the door,
and forms one of the angles of the building four or five feet above the
floor of the court. It is difficult to ascertain the exact nature of
this stone, as its surface has been completely worn and reduced to its
present condition by the kisses and worshipping touches bestowed upon
it by countless millions of pilgrims. The Kaaba is entirely covered
with black silk, which envelopes its sides, leaving the roof exposed.
This veil or curtain is called 'the Kesoua,' and is renewed yearly
during the pilgrimage. It is brought from Cairo, where it is
manufactured at the expense of the Viceroy."
Up to the time of Burckhardt no such detailed account of Mecca and her
sanctuary had been given to the world. For this reason we shall insert
extracts from the original narrative; extracts which might indeed be
multiplied, for they include circumstantial accounts of the sacred
well, called Zemzem, water from which is considered as an infallible
remedy for every complaint. The traveller speaks also of the "Gate of
Salvation," of the Makam Ibrahim, a monument containing the stone upon
which Abraham sat when he was engaged in building the Kaaba, and where
the marks of his knees may still be seen, and of all the buildings
enclosed within the temple precincts.
Judging from Burckhardt's minute and complete description, these spots
still retain their former physiognomy. The same number of pilgrims
chant the same songs; the men only are no longer the same. His accounts
of the feast of the pilgrimage and the holy enthusiasm of the faithful,
are followed by a picture which brings before us, in the most sombre
colours, the effects of this great gathering of men, attracted from
every part of the world.
"The termination of the pilgrimage," he says, "lends a very different
aspect to the mosque. Illness and death, consequent upon the great
fatigues undergone during the voyage, are accelerated by the scanty
covering afforded by the Ihram, the unhealthy dwellings of Mecca, the
bad food, and frequent absolute dearth of provisions. The temple is
filled with corpses brought thither to receive the prayers of the Iman,
or with sick persons who insist upon being carried, as their last hours
approach, to the colonnade, hoping to be saved by the sight of the
Kaaba, or in any case to have the consolation of expiring within the
sacred precincts. One sees poor pilgrims, sinking under illness and
hunger, dragging their weary bodies along the colonnade; and when they
no longer have the strength to stretch out a hand to the passer-by,
they place a little jar beside the mat upon which they are laid, to
receive what charity may bestow upon them. As they feel the last moment
approach, they cover themselves with their ragged clothes, and very
often a day passes before it is ascertained that they are dead."
We will conclude our extracts from Burckhardt's account of Mecca with
his opinion of the inhabitants.
"Although the natives of Mecca possess grand qualities, although they
are pleasant, hospitable, cheerful and proud, they openly transgress
the Koran by drinking, gambling, and smoking. Deceit and perjury are no
longer looked upon as crimes by them; they do not ignore the scandal
such vices bring upon them; but while each individually exclaims
against the corruption of manners, none reform themselves."
Upon the 15th of January, 1815, Burckhardt left Mecca with a caravan of
pilgrims on their way to visit the tomb of the prophet. The journey to
Medina, like that between Mecca and Jeddah, was accomplished at night,
and afforded little opportunity for observation. In the winter
night-travelling is less comfortable than travelling by day. A valley
called Wady-Fatme, but generally known as El-Wadi, was crossed; it
abounded in shrubs and date-trees, and was well cultivated in the
eastern portion. A little beyond it lies the valley of Es-Ssafra, the
market of the neighbouring tribes and celebrated for its plantations of
dates.
The traveller relates that "The groves of date-trees extend for nearly
four miles, and belong to the natives of Ssafra as well as to the
Bedouins of the neighbourhood, who employ labourers to water the
ground, and come themselves to reap the harvest. The date-trees pass
from one person to another in the course of trade; they are sold
separately. A father often receives three date-trees as the price of
the daughter he gives in marriage. They are all planted in deep sand
brought from the middle of the valley, and piled up over their roots;
they ought to be renewed every year, and they are generally swept away
by the torrents. Each little plot is surrounded by a wall of mud or
stone, and the cultivators live in hamlets or isolated cabins among the
trees. The principal stream flows through a grove near the market;
beside it rises a little mosque, shaded by large chestnuts. I had seen
none before in the Hedjaz."
Burckhardt was thirteen days in reaching Medina. But this rather long
journey was not lost time to him; he collected much information about
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