which was so enthusiastically described, in the lyrical account just
quoted, and in the hardly less exuberant one which La Billadière
afterwards gave of it, is known in our day as -phornium tenax-.
[Illustration: An i-pah. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
It was really necessary to subdue the expectations that these
narratives excited! According to the eminent chemist Ducharte, the
prolonged action of the damp heat, and above all bleaching,
disintegrates the cellular particles of this plant, and after one or
two washings, the tissues which are fabricated from it, are reduced to
tow. Still it forms a considerable article of commerce. Mr. Alfred
Kennedy, in his very curious work on New Zealand, tells us that in
1865, only fifteen bales of -phornium- were exported, that four years
later the export amounted to the almost incredible number of 12,162
bales, and in 1870 to 32,820 bales, valued at 132,578-l-.
The inhabitants were tall and well proportioned, alert, vigorous, and
intelligent. The women had not the delicate organization, and grace of
form, which distinguish them in other countries; dressed like the men,
they were recognizable only by their sweetness of voice and liveliness
of expression. Although the natives of the same tribe were
affectionate in their relations to each other, they were implacable to
their enemies, and they gave no quarter; the dead bodies of their
enemies afforded horrible festivities, which the want of other animal
food explains, but can hardly excuse.
[Illustration: A New Zealand family.]
"Perhaps," says Cook, "it appears strange that there were frequent
wars in a country where so few advantages follow victory." But besides
the need of procuring meat, which led to the frequency of these wars,
another cause for them, unknown to Cook, existed in the fact that the
population consisted of two distinct races, naturally enemies of each
other.
Ancient tradition has it that the Maories came in the first instance,
some thirteen hundred years ago, from the Sandwich Islands. There is
reason for believing this to be correct, when one reflects that the
beautiful Polynesian race peopled all the archipelago sprinkled
throughout the Pacific Ocean.
Leaving Haouaikai, which must be identical with Hawai, of the Sandwich
Islands, or Sanaï of the Navigator Archipelago, the Maories had
repelled or possibly driven back the aboriginal population. In truth,
the earliest colonists noticed two distinctly separate types in the
New Zealanders. The one, and most important, unmistakably recalled the
natives of Hawaii, the Marquisas, and Tonga Islands, whilst the other
offered many resemblances to the Melanesian races.
These particulars, collected by Freycinet, and recently confirmed by
Hochsetten, are in perfect accord with the singular fact, recorded by
Cook, that Tupia, a native of Tahiti, made himself readily understood
by the New Zealanders.
The migrations of the Polynesian tribes are thoroughly understood in
these days, thanks to the wider knowledge of languages and
anthropology, but they were scarcely suspected in the time of Cook,
who, indeed, was one of the first to collect legends on the subject.
"Every one of these tribes," he says, "traditionally believes that his
forefathers came years ago from another country, and they all assert
from the same tradition, that the country was called Heawise." The
country at this time produced only one quadruped, the dog, and that
was an alien. Thus the New Zealanders had no means of subsistence, but
vegetables and a few fowls unknown to the English. Fortunately the
inhabitants were saved from death by starvation by the abundance of
fish. Accustomed to war, and looking upon all strangers as enemies,
possibly seeing in them merely an edible commodity, the natives
naturally attacked the English.
Once convinced, however, of the utter inadequacy of their weapons, and
of the powers of their adversaries, once convinced that the new comers
avoided using those instruments which produced such terrific effects,
they treated the navigators as friends, and conducted themselves
towards them with surprising loyalty.
If the natives usually met with by the navigators had little idea of
decency or modesty, the same was not true of the New Zealanders, and
Cook gives a curious example of this fact. Although not so clean as
the natives of Tahiti, whose climate is much warmer, and although they
bathed less often, they took a pride in their persons, and showed a
certain coquetry. For instance, they greased their hair with an oil or
fat obtained from fishes or birds, which becoming rank after awhile,
made them as disagreeable to a refined sense of smell as the
Hottentots.
They were in the habit of tatooing themselves, and some of their tatoo
designs demonstrated wonderful skill, and taste certainly not to be
expected among this primitive race.
The English were greatly surprised to find that the women devoted less
attention to their attire than the men. Their hair was cut short and
without ornament, and they wore clothes similar to those of their
husbands. Their sole attempt at coquetry consisted in fastening the
most extraordinary things to their ears, stuffs, feathers, fish-bones,
bits of wood, not to mention green talc needles, the nails and teeth
of their deceased parents, and generally everything they could lay
hands on, which they suspended by means of thread.
This recalls an adventure related by Cook, which happened to a Tahitan
woman. This woman, envious of all she saw, wanted to have a padlock
attached to her ear. She was allowed to take it, and then the key was
thrown into the sea before her. After a certain time, either because
the weight of this singular ornament worried her, or because she
wished to replace it by another, she begged to have it removed. The
request was refused, upon the ground that her demand was foolish, and
that as she had wished for this singular ear-ring, it was fair that
she should put up with its inconveniences.
The clothing of the New Zealanders consisted of one piece of stuff,
something between reed or cloth, attached to the shoulders and falling
to the knees, and of a second rolled round the waist, which reached to
the ground. But the latter was not an invariable part of their dress.
Thus, when they had on only the upper part of their costume, and they
squatted, they presented the appearance of thatched roofs.
Their coverings were sometimes trimmed in a most elegant manner, by
means of various coloured fringes, and more rarely with dogskin cut
into strips. But the industry of these people was especially shown in
the construction of their pirogues.
Their war-vessels contained from forty to fifty armed men, and one of
them, measured at Ulaga, was no less than sixty-eight feet long. It
was beautifully ornamented with open work and decorated with fringes
of black feathers. The smaller ones generally had poles. Occasionally
two pirogues were joined together. The fishing-boats were ornamented
at the prow and the poop by the face of a grinning man with hideous
features, lolling tongue and eyes made of white shells. Two pirogues
were often coupled, and the very smallest carried only the poles
needed to preserve their equilibrium.
"The usual cause of illnesses," remarks Cook, "being intemperance and
want of exercise, it is not surprising that these people rejoice in
perfect health. Each time that we went to their settlements, men,
women, and children surrounded us, excited by the same curiosity which
caused us to look at them. We never saw one who appeared affected by
illness, and amongst all that we saw naked we never remarked the
smallest eruption on the skin, nor any trace of spots or sores."
II.
Reconnoitring the Eastern Coast of Australia--Remarks on the natives
and productions of the country--The -Endeavour- stranded--Perpetual
dangers of navigation--Crossing Torres Straits--The natives of New
Guinea--Return to England.
On the 31st of March, Cook left Cape Farewell and New Zealand,
steering westward. On the 19th of April, he perceived land which
extended from north-east to west, in 37 degrees 58 minutes S. Lat. and
210 degrees 39 minutes W. Long.
In his opinion, judging by Tasman's chart, this was the country called
Van Diemen's Land. In any case, he was unable to ascertain whether the
portion of the coast before him belonged to Tasmania. He named all the
points on his northern voyage, Hick's Point, Ram Head, Cape Howe,
Dromedary Mount, Upright Point, Pigeon House, &c.
This part of Australia is mountainous, and covered with various kinds
of trees.
[Illustration: Map of Australia, after Perron's atlas.]
Smoke announced it to be inhabited, but the sparse population ran away
as soon as the English prepared to land.
The first natives seen were armed with long lances and a piece of wood
shaped like a scimitar. This was the famous "boomerang," so effective
a weapon in the hands of the natives, so useless in that of Europeans.
The faces of the natives were covered with white powder, their bodies
were striped with lines of the same colour, which, passing obliquely
across the chest, resembled the shoulder-belts of soldiers. On their
thighs and legs they had circles of the same kind, which would have
appeared like gaiters had not the natives been entirely naked.
A little further on the English once more attempted to land. But two
natives whom they had previously endeavoured to propitiate by throwing
them nails, glassware, and other trifles, made such menacing
demonstrations, that they were obliged to fire over their heads. At
first they seemed stunned by the detonation, but as they found that
they were not wounded, they commenced hostilities by throwing stones
and javelins. A volley of bullets struck the oldest in his legs. The
unfortunate native rushed at once to one of the cabins, but returned
with a shield to continue the fight, which was shortly ended, when he
was convinced of his powerlessness.
The English seized the opportunity to land, and reach the houses,
where they found several spears. In the same bay, they landed some
casks for water, but communication with the natives was hopeless; they
fled immediately on the advance of the English.
During an excursion on land, Cook, Banks, and Solander found traces of
various animals. The birds were plentiful, and remarkably beautiful.
The great number of plants discovered by the naturalists in this part,
induced Cook to give it the name of Botany Bay. "This bay is," he says,
"large, safe, and convenient; it is situated in 34 degrees S. Lat.,
and 208 degrees 37 minutes W. Long." Wood and water were easily
procurable there.
"The trees," according to Cook, "were at least as large as the oaks of
England, and I saw one which somewhat resembled them. It is that one
which distils a red gum like 'Dragon's blood.'"
No doubt this was a species of Eucalyptus. Among the various kinds of
fishes which abound in these latitudes is the thorn-back skate, one of
which, even after cleaning, weighed three hundred and thirty-six
pounds.
On the 6th of May, Cook left Botany Bay, and continued to coast to the
north at two or three miles distance from the shore. The navigation
along this coast was sufficiently monotonous. The only incidents which
imparted a slight animation, were the sudden and unexpected
differences in the depth of the sea, caused by the line of breakers
which it was necessary to avoid.
[Illustration: Map of the east coast of New Holland, after Cook. Gravé
par E. Morieu.]
Landing a little further on, the navigators ascertained that the
country was inferior to that surrounding Botany Bay.
The soil was dry and sandy, the sides of the hills were sparsely
covered with isolated trees and free from brush-wood. The sailors
killed a bustard, which was pronounced to be the best game eaten since
leaving England. Hence, this point was named Bustard Bay. Numbers of
bivalves were found there, especially small pearl oysters.
On the 25th of May, the -Endeavour- being a mile from land, was
opposite a point which exactly crossed the Tropic of Capricorn. The
following day, it was ascertained that the sea rose and fell seven
feet. The flow was westward, and the ebb eastward, just the reverse of
the case in Botany Bay. In this spot islands were numerous, the
channel narrow and very shallow.
On the 29th, Cook landed with Banks and Solander in a large bay, in
search of a spot where he could have the keel and bottom of his vessel
repaired, but they were scarcely on terra firma, when they found their
progress impeded by a thick shrub, prickly and studded with sharp
seeds, no doubt a species of "-spinifex-," which clung to the clothes,
pierced them, and penetrated the flesh. At the same time, myriads of
gnats and mosquitoes attacked them, and covered them with painful
bites.
A suitable spot for repairs was found, but a watering-place was sought
in vain. Gum-trees growing here and there were covered with enormous
ants' nests, and soon deprived of gum by those insects. Numerous
brilliantly-coloured butterflies hovered over the explorers.
These were curious facts, interesting from more than one point of view,
but they failed to satisfy the captain, who was eager to replenish his
water supply.
From the first, the great defect of this country was apparent. It
consists in the absence of streams, springs, and rivers!
A second excursion made during the evening of the same day was equally
barren of good results. Cook ascertained that the bay was very deep,
and decided on making the circuit of it in the morning.
He soon discovered that the width of the channel by which he entered
increased rapidly, and that it ultimately formed a vast lake
communicating with the sea to the north-west. Another arm stretched
eastwards, and it was conceivable that the lake had a second outlet
into the sea at the bottom of the bay.
Cook named this part of Australia New South Wales. Sterile, sandy, dry,
it lacked all that was most necessary for the establishment of a
colony. And the English could not ascertain from their cursory
inspection or hydrographical examination that, mineralogically
speaking, it was one of the richest countries of the New World.
The navigation was monotonously continued from the 31st of May to the
10th of June. On this latter date the -Endeavour-, after passing
safely along an unknown coast, in the midst of shallows and breakers,
for a space of 22 degrees or 1300 miles, was all at once exposed to a
greater danger than any which had been apprehended.
They were in 16 degrees S. Lat. and 214 degrees 39 minutes W. Long.
when Cook, seeing two islets lying low and covered with trees, gave
orders to keep well out to sea during the night, so as to look for the
islands discovered by Quiros in these latitudes, an archipelago which
some geographers had maintained was united to the mainland.
Shortly after nine in the evening the soundings taken every quarter of
an hour showed constantly decreasing depth. All crowded to the deck.
The water became deeper. It was concluded that the vessel had passed
over the extremity of the sand-banks seen at sunset, and all rejoiced
at escape from danger. When the depth increased, Cook and all but the
officers of the watch retired to their berths, but at eleven o'clock
the sounding-line, after indicating twenty fathoms, suddenly recorded
seventeen, and before it was possible to cast anchor, the -Endeavour-
had touched, and beaten by the waves, struck upon a rock.
The situation was a serious one. The -Endeavour-, raised by a wave
over the ridge of a reef, had fallen again into a hollow in the rock,
and by the moonlight, portions of the false keel and the sheathing
could be seen floating.
Unfortunately the accident happened at high water. It was useless
therefore to count upon the assistance of the tide to release the ship.
Without loss of time the guns, barrels, casks, ballast, and all that
could lighten the vessel, were thrown overboard. The vessel still
struck against the rock. The sloop was put to sea, the sails and
topsails were lowered, the tow-lines were thrown to the starboard, and
the captain was about to order the anchor to be cast on the same side,
when it was discovered that the water was deeper at the stern. But
although the capstan was vigorously worked, it was impossible to move
the vessel.
Daybreak disclosed the position in all its horrors. Land was eight
leagues distant, not a single isle was visible between the ship and
land where refuge might be found if, as was to be feared, the vessel
broke up. Although she had been lightened of fifty tons weight, the
sea only gained a foot and a half.
Fortunately the wind fell, otherwise the -Endeavour- must soon have
been a wreck. However, the leak increased rapidly, although the pumps
were worked incessantly. A third was put into action. The alternative
was dreadful! If the vessel were freed, it must sink when no longer
sustained by the rock, while if it remained fixed, it must be
demolished by the waves which rent its planks asunder. The boats were
too small to carry all the crew to land at one time.
Under such circumstances was there not danger that discipline would be
thrown to the winds? Who could tell whether a fratricidal struggle
might not ensue? And even should some of the sailors reach land, what
fate could be in store for them upon an inhospitable shore, where nets
and fire-arms would scarcely procure them nourishment?
What would become of those who were obliged to remain on board? Every
one shared these fears, but so strong a sense of duty prevailed, so
much was the captain beloved by his crew, that the terrors of the
situation evoked no single cry, no disorder of any kind. The strength
of the men not employed at the pumps was wisely harboured for the
moment when their fate should be decided.
Measures were so skilfully taken, that when the sea rose to its height,
all the officers and crew worked the capstan, and as the vessel was
disengaged from the rock, it was ascertained that she drew no more
water than when on the reef. But the sailors were exhausted after
twenty-four hours of such terrible anxiety. It was necessary to change
the hands at the pumps every five minutes.
A new disaster was now added. The man whose duty it was to measure the
water in the hold, announced that it had increased to eighteen inches
in a few moments. Fortunately the mistake of the measure taken was
immediately ascertained, and the crew were so overjoyed that they
fancied all danger over.
An officer named Monkhouse conceived an excellent idea. He applied a
sort of cap to the stern, which he filled in with wool, rope-yarn, and
the intestines of the animals slaughtered on board, and so effected a
stoppage of the leak. From this time the men, who spoke of driving the
vessel on a coast to reconstruct another from its ruins, which might
take them to the East Indies, thought only of finding a suitable
harbour for the purpose.
The desirable harbour was reached on the 17th of June, at the mouth of
a current which Cook called Endeavour River.
The necessary labours for the careening of the vessel were at once
begun and carried on with the utmost rapidity.
The sick were landed, and the staff visited the land several times, in
the hope of killing some game, and procuring fresh meat for the
sufferers from scurvy. Tupia saw an animal which Banks, from his
description, imagined to have been a wolf. But a few days later
several others were seen, who jumped upon their fore feet, and took
enormous leaps. They were kangaroos, marsupial animals, only met with
in Australia, and which had never before seen a European. The natives
in this spot appeared far less savage than on other parts of the coast.
They not only allowed the English to approach, but treated them
cordially, and remained several days with them.
[Illustration: "They were kangaroos."]
The narrative says,--
"They were usually of medium height, but their limbs were remarkably
small. Their skin was the colour of soot, or rather, it might be
described as of deep chocolate colour. Their hair was black and not
woolly, and was cut short; some wore it plaited, some curled. Various
portions of their bodies were painted red, and one of them had white
stripes on his lips and breast which he called 'carbanda.' Their
features were far from disagreeable; they had very bright eyes, white
and even teeth, and their voices were sweet and musical. Some among
them wore a nose-ornament which Cook had not met with in New Zealand.
It was a bone, as large as a finger, passed through the cartilage.
"A little later a quarrel arose. The crew had taken possession of some
tortoises which the natives claimed, without having in the least
assisted in capturing them. When they found that their demand was not
acceded to, they retired in fury, and set fire to the shrubs in the
midst of which the English encampment was situated. The latter lost
all their combustible commodities in the conflagration, and the fire,
leaping from hill to hill, afforded a magnificent spectacle during the
night."
Meantime Messrs. Banks, Solander, and others, enjoyed many successful
hunts. They killed kangaroos, opossums, a species of pole-cat, wolves,
and various kinds of serpents, some of which were venomous. They also
saw numbers of birds, kites, hawks, cockatoos, orioles, paroquets,
pigeons, and other unknown birds.
[Illustration: Tahitian fleet off Oparee. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
After leaving Endeavour River, Cook had good opportunities of testing
the difficulties of navigation in these latitudes. Rocks and shallows
abounded. It was necessary to cast anchor in the evening, for it was
impossible to proceed at night through this labyrinth of rocks without
striking. The sea, as far as the eye could reach, appeared to dash
upon one line of rocks more violently than upon the others; this
appeared to be the last.
Upon arriving there, after five days' struggle with a contrary wind,
Cook discovered three islands stretching four or five leagues to the
north. But his difficulties were not over. The vessel was once more
surrounded by reefs and chains of low islets, amongst which it was
impossible to venture.
Cook was inclined to think it would be more prudent to return and seek
another passage. But such a détour would have consumed too much time,
and have retarded his arrival in the East Indies. Moreover there was
an insurmountable obstacle to this course. Three months' provisions
were all that remained.
The situation appeared desperate, and Cook decided to steer as far as
possible from the coast, and to try and pass the exterior line of
rocks. He soon found a channel, which shortly brought them to the open
sea.
"So happy a change in the situation," says Kippis, "was received with
delight. The English were full of it, and openly expressed their joy.
For nearly three months they had been in perpetual danger. When at
night they rested at anchor, the sound of an angry sea forced them to
remember that they were surrounded by rocks, and that, should the
cable break, shipwreck was inevitable. They had travelled over 360
miles, and were forced to keep a man incessantly throwing the line and
sounding the rocks through which they navigated. Possibly no other
vessel could furnish an example of such continued effort."
Had they not just escaped so terrible a danger, the English would have
had cause for uneasiness in reflecting upon the length of way that
remained to them across a sea but little known, upon a vessel which
let in nine inches of water in an hour. With pumps out of repair and
provisions almost consumed, the navigators only escaped these terrible
dangers to be exposed on the 16th of April to a peril of equal
magnitude.
Carried by the waves to a line of rocks above which the sea spray
washed to a prodigious height, making it impossible to cast anchor;
without a breath of wind, they had but one resource, to lower boats to
tow the vessel off. In spite of the sailors' efforts the -Endeavour-
was still only 100 paces from the reef, when a light breeze, so slight
that under better circumstances no one would have noticed it, arose
and disengaged the vessel. But ten minutes later it fell, the currents
strongly returned, and the -Endeavour- was once more carried within
200 feet of the breakers.
After many unsuccessful attempts, a narrow opening was perceived.
"The danger it offered was less imminent than that of remaining in so
terrible a situation," says the narrative. "A light breeze which
fortunately sprang up, the efforts of the boats, and the tide,
conveyed the ship to the opening, across which she passed with
frightful rapidity. The strength of the current prevented the
-Endeavour- from touching either shore of the channel, which, however,
was but a mile in width, and extremely unequal in depth, giving now
thirty fathoms, now only seven of foul bottom."
If we have lingered somewhat over the incidents of this voyage, it is
because it was accomplished in unknown seas, in the midst of breakers
and currents, which, sufficiently dangerous for a sailor when they are
marked on a map, become much more so when, as was the case with Cook,
since leaving the coast of New Holland, the voyage is made in the face
of unknown obstacles, which all the instinct and keen vision of the
sailor cannot always successfully surmount.
One last question remained to be solved,--
Were New Holland and New Guinea portions of one country? Were they
divided by an arm of the sea, or by a strait?
In spite of the dangers of such a course, Cook approached the shore,
and followed the coast of Australia towards the north.
On the 21st he doubled the most northerly cape of New Holland, to
which he gave the name of Cape York, and entered a channel sprinkled
with islands near the mainland, which inspired him with the hope of
finding a passage to the Indian Ocean.
Once more he landed, and planting the English flag, solemnly took
possession in the name of King George, of the entire Eastern Coast
from the eighteenth degree of latitude to this spot, situated in 107
degrees south. He gave the name of New South Wales to this territory,
and to fitly conclude the ceremony, he caused three salutes to be
fired.
Cook next penetrated Torres Strait, which he called Endeavour Strait,
discovered and named the Wallis Islands, situated in the middle of the
south-west entrance to Booby Island, and Prince of Wales Island, and
steered for the southern coast of New Guinea, which he followed until
the 3rd of September without being able to land.
Upon that day Cook landed with about eleven well-armed men, amongst
them Solander, Banks, and his servants. They were scarcely a quarter
of a mile from their ship, when three Indians emerged from the wood,
uttering piercing cries, and rushed at the English.
"The one who came nearest," says the narrative, "threw something which
he carried at his side, with his hand, and it burned like gunpowder,
but we heard no report."
[Illustration: Three Indians emerged from the wood.]
Cook and his companions were obliged to fire upon the natives in order
to regain their ship, from whence they could examine them at their
leisure. They resembled the Australians entirely, and like them, wore
their hair short, and were perfectly naked--only their skin was less
dark; no doubt because they were less dirty.
"Meantime the natives struck their fire at intervals, four or five at
a time. We could not imagine what this fire could be, nor their object
in throwing it.
"They held in the hand a short stick, perhaps a hollow cane, which
they flourished from side to side, and at the same instant we saw the
fire and smoke exactly as it flashes from a gun, and it lasted no
longer. We observed this astonishing phenomenon from the vessel, and
the illusion was so great that those on board believed the Indians had
fire-arms, and we ourselves should have imagined they fired guns, but
that our ship was so close that in such a case we must have heard the
explosion."
This fact remains unexplained, in spite of the many commentaries it
has occasioned, and which bear out the testimony of the great
navigator.
Many of the English officers demanded immediate permission to land in
search of cocoa-nuts arid other fruits, but the captain was unwilling
to risk his sailors' lives in so futile an attempt; he was, besides,
anxious to reach Batavia, to obtain repairs for his vessel. He thought
it useless, moreover, to remain a longer time in these latitudes. They
had been so often visited by the Spanish and Dutch, that there were no
further discoveries to make.
In passing Arrow and Wesel Islands he rectified their positions, and
reaching Timor, put into port in Savu Island, where the Dutch had been
settled for some time. There Cook revictualled, and by accurate
observations settled its position at 10 degrees 35 minutes southern
latitude, and 237 degrees 30 minutes west longitude.
After a short interval the -Endeavour- arrived at Batavia, where she
was repaired.
But the stay in that unhealthy country was fatal after such severe
fatigue. Endemic fevers raged there; and Banks, Solander, and Cook, as
well as the greater part of the crew, fell ill. Many died, amongst
them Monkhouse, the surgeon, Tupia, and little Tayeto. Ten men only
escaped the fever.
The -Endeavour- set sail on the 27th of December, and on the 15th of
January, 1771, put into Prince of Wales Island for victuals.
From that moment, sickness increased among the crew. Twenty-three men
died, amongst them Green, the astronomer, who was much regretted.
After a stay at the Cape of Good Hope, where he met with the welcome
he so sorely needed, Cook re-embarked, touched at St. Helena, and
anchored in the Downs on the 11th of June, 1772, after an absence of
nearly four years.
"Thus," says Kippis, "ended Cook's first voyage, a voyage in which he
had experienced such dangers, discovered so many countries, and so
often evinced his superiority of character. He was well worthy of the
dangerous enterprise and of the courageous efforts to which he had
been called."
CHAPTER IV.
CAPTAIN COOK'S SECOND VOYAGE.
I.
Search for the Southern Continent--Second stay at New Zealand--
Pomontou Archipelago--Second stay at Tahiti--Reconnoitring Tonga
Isles--Third stay at New Zealand--Second crossing of the Southern
Ocean--Easter Island reconnoitred--Visit to the Marquesas Islands.
Had the government not been desirous of rewarding James Cook for the
way in which he had fulfilled the mission entrusted to him, the
unanimous voice of the public would have constrained them. On the 29th
of August he received the rank of commander in the Royal Navy. But the
great navigator, proud of the services he had rendered to England and
to science, thought the reward less than his achievements merited. He
would have delighted in an appointment as ship's captain, but Lord
Sandwich, who was then at the head of the Admiralty, pointed out to
him, that it was not possible to gratify him without upsetting all
established customs, and injuring the discipline of the Royal Navy.
However, Cook busied himself in putting together the necessary
materials for the narration of his experiences; but, being soon
occupied with still more important matters, he placed them in the
hands of Dr. Hawkesworth, who was to superintend their publication.
At the same time, the observations he had taken on the transit of
Mercury in concert with Mr. Green, his calculations and astronomical
solutions, were submitted to the consideration of the Royal Society,
and that learned body at once recognized his merit.
In one respect, however, the important results obtained by Cook were
incomplete. He had not perfectly proved the impossibility of an
antarctic continent. This chimera was still dear to the hearts of
scientific men. Although obliged to admit that neither New Zealand nor
Australia made part of such a continent, and that the -Endeavour- had
navigated in latitudes in which it might have been found, they still
affirmed that it would be found still more south, and reiterated all
those advantages which its discovery would entail.
The government determined to settle a question which had been
discussed for so many years, and to despatch an expedition for the
purpose. Its commander was easily selected. The nature of the voyage
demanded vessels of peculiar construction. As the -Endeavour- had been
sent to the Falkland Islands, the Admiralty gave orders for the
purchase of the two suitable vessels for the purpose.
Cook was consulted, and insisted that the ships should be solidly
built, draw little water, and possess capacity for carrying provisions
and ammunition in proportion to the number of the crew and the length
of the voyage.
The Admiralty accordingly bought two vessels, constructed at Whitby,
by the same ship-builder as the -Endeavour-. The larger was of 462
tons burden, and was named the -Resolution-, the second was only of
336 tons, and was called the -Adventure-.
Cook received command of the -Resolution-, and Captain Tobias Furneaux,
second lieutenant of the -Wallis-, was raised to the command of the
-Adventure-. The second and third officers, and several of the crew
had already served in the -Endeavour-.
It may readily be imagined that every possible care was taken in the
equipment of these ships. Lord Sandwich and Captain Palliser
themselves superintended every detail.
Each of the ships was stocked with provisions of every kind for two
years and a half.
Very extraordinary articles were provided at the instance of Captain
Cook, who claimed them as anti-scorbutics, for instance, malt, sour
krout, salted cabbages, soup-slabs, mustard and saloop, as well as
carrot marmalade, and thickened and unfermented beer, which was tried
at the suggestion of Baron Storch of Berlin, and Mr. Pelham, secretary
to the Commissariat department.
Equal care was taken to ship two small boats, each of twenty tons,
intended to carry the crew in case of shipwreck.
William Hodges, a landscape painter, two naturalists, John Reinhold
Forster and his son George; two astronomers, W. Wales and W. Bayley,
accompanied the expedition, provided with the best instruments for
observation.
Nothing that could conduce to the success of the adventure was
neglected. It was to return with an immense amount of collected
information, which was to contribute to the progress of the natural
and physical sciences, and to the ethnology of navigation and
geography.
Cook says, "I received my instructions at Plymouth dated 25th June.
They enjoined my immediate departure for the island of Madeira. To
ship wine there, and thence to proceed to the Cape of Good Hope, where
I was to let the crew have a spree on shore, and obtain the provisions
and other stores I needed. To advance southwards and endeavour to find
Circumcision Cape, which was said to have been discovered by M. Bouvet,
in the 54 degrees southern parallel, and about 11 degrees 20 minutes
east longitude, reckoning from Greenwich. If I found this cape, to
ascertain whether it was part of the continent or an island. Should it
prove the former, to neglect no opportunity of investigating its
possible extent. To collect facts of every kind which might be useful
to navigation and commerce, or would tend to the progress of the
natural sciences. I was desired to observe the spirit, temperament,
character, and means of the inhabitants, should there be any, and to
use every fair means of forming friendly alliances with them.
"My instructions proceeded to enjoin me to seek discoveries in the
east or west, according to the position in which I might find myself,
and advised my nearing the south pole as much as possible, and as long
as the condition of the ships, the health of the crew, and the
provisions allowed of my doing so. To be careful in any case to
reserve sufficient provisions to reach some known port, where I might
refit for my return to England.
"In addition, I was ordered, if I found Circumcision Cape to be an
island, or if I did not succeed in finding it, in the first case to
take the necessary bearings, and in both to sail southward as long as
I still hoped to find the continent. Then to proceed eastward, to look
for this continent, and to discover the islands which might be
situated in this part of the southern hemisphere. To remain in high
latitudes and to prosecute my discoveries, as had been already said,
as near the pole as possible, until I had completed the navigation of
the world, and finally to repair to the Cape of Good Hope, and from
thence to Spithead."
Cook left Plymouth harbour on the 13th of July, and on the 29th of the
same month he arrived at Funchal, in Madeira. Here he took in
provisions, and continued his route southwards. But being shortly
convinced that his supply of water would not hold out until he reached
the Cape of Good Hope, he determined to break the voyage by putting in
at Cape Verd Islands, and on the 10th of August he anchored in Praya
Port, which he left four days later.
Cook availed himself of his stay in this port, as he usually did, to
collect every fact which might be useful to navigators. His
description is the more valuable now, as these parts have completely
changed in character, and the conditions of a stay in port have been
greatly modified by the improvements accomplished there.
On the 23rd of the same month, after violent squalls which had driven
every one on deck, Cook, aware of the pernicious effect of the damp of
warm climates, and always on the alert to keep his crew in good health,
gave orders to aerate (renew the air) in the between decks. He even
had a fire lighted in order to smoke it, and dry it quickly, and not
only took the precautions advocated by Lord Sandwich, and Sir Hugh
Palliser, but also those which the experience of his last voyage
suggested to him.
Thanks to all these efforts at prevention there was not a single sick
case on board the -Resolution- when she arrived at the Cape of Good
Hope on the 30th of October. Cook, in company with Captain Furneaux,
and Messrs. Foster, went to pay a visit to the Dutch governor, Baron
de Plettemberg, who placed all the resources of the colony at his
disposal. There he found that two French ships, which had left the
island of Mauritius in March, had touched at the Cape before
proceeding to the southern seas where they were to prosecute
discoveries, under command of Captain Marion.
During this stay in port, which was longer than they expected, Forster
met the Swedish botanist Sparman, a pupil of Linnæus, and engaged him
to accompany him, by promising him large pay. It is difficult to
praise Forster's disinterestedness under these circumstances too
highly. He had no hesitation in admitting a rival, and even paid his
expenses, in order to add completeness to the studies in natural
history which he wished to make in the countries he was about to visit.
Anchor was weighed on the 22nd of November, and the two ships resumed
their course southwards, in search of Cape Circumcision, discovered by
Captain Bouvet, on the 1st of January, 1739. As the temperature would
rapidly become colder, Cook distributed the warm clothes, furnished by
the Admiralty, to his sailors. From the 29th of November till the 6th
of December a frightful tempest prevailed. The ships, driven out of
their course, were carried to the east, to such a degree that they
were forced to resume the search for Circumcision Cape. Another
consequence of the bad weather, and of the sudden change from heat to
extreme cold was the death of all the animals embarked at the Cape.
And lastly, the sailors suffered so much from the damp, that it was
necessary to increase the rations of brandy to stimulate them to work.
On the 10th of December, in 50 degrees 40 minutes southern latitude
the first ice was met with. Rain and snow succeeded each other
uninterruptedly. The fog soon became so dense, that the crews did not
perceive a floating iceberg, until they were a mile past it. "One of
these," says the narrative, "was not less than 200 feet high, 400 wide,
and 2000 long.
"Taking it as probable, that this piece was of absolutely equal size,
its depth beneath the water, would have been 1800 feet, and its height
about 2000 feet, and from the dimensions just given its entire bulk
must have contained 1600 million cubic feet of ice."
[Illustration: Among the icebergs.]
As they proceeded further south the icebergs increased. The sea was so
rough, that the waves climbed these glacial blocks, and fell on the
other side in fine impalpable dust. The scene filled the observers
with admiration. But this was soon succeeded by terror, upon the
reflection that if the vessel struck one of these enormous masses, she
must be dashed to pieces. The presence of danger soon, however,
produced indifference, and more thought was bestowed upon the sublime
beauty, than upon the strife with this terrible element.
Upon the 14th of December, an enormous iceberg, which closed in the
horizon, prevented the two vessels from proceeding southwards, and it
became absolutely necessary to skirt it.
It did not present an unbroken surface, for hillocks were visible on
it, similar to those met on the previous days. Some thought they
distinguished land under the ice, even Cook for the moment was
deceived, but as the fog lifted the mistake was easily rectified.
Next day the vessels were driven before a strong current. The elder
Forster and Wales, the astronomer, embarked in a small boat to
ascertain its swiftness. Whilst thus engaged, the fog became so dense,
that they completely lost sight of the ship. In this miserable boat,
without instruments or provisions, in the midst of the wide ocean, far
from any coast, surrounded by ice, their situation was dreadful. They
left off rowing, lest they should get farther from the ship. They were
losing all hope when the sound of a distant bell fell upon their ears.
They rowed swiftly in the direction of the sound. The -Adventure-
replied to their shouts and picked them up after several hours of
terrible suspense.
The generally received opinion was, that the ice floats collected in
the bays or mouths of rivers. The explorers, therefore, imagined
themselves near land, which would prove to be situated in the south
behind the vast iceberg.
They were thirty leagues to the west of it, before they found an
opening in the ice which might lead to the south. The captain then
determined to steer an equal distance to the east. Should he not find
land, he at least hoped to double the iceberg, and penetrate in
advance of it to the pole, and thereby settle the doubts of all the
physicists.
But although it was the middle of summer in this part of the world,
the cold became daily more intense. The sailors complained of it, and
symptoms of scurvy appeared on board.
Warmer clothes were distributed, and recourse was had to the remedies
usual in such cases, malt and lemon-juice, which soon overcame the
malady, and enabled the crews to bear the severity of the temperature.
On the 29th of December, Cook ascertained positively that the iceberg
was joined to no land. He therefore decided to proceed eastward as far
as the parallel of Cape Circumcision, that is, if no obstacle
prevented him.
He had scarcely put this resolve into execution when the wind became
so violent, and the sea so rough, that navigation, in the midst of
floating ice, which crashed with a fearful noise, became most perilous.
The danger increased, when a field of ice extending beyond the range
of vision was seen to the north. There seemed every prospect of the
ships being imprisoned for many weeks, "hemmed in," to use the
expression of whalers, if indeed they did not run the risk of being
crushed at once.
Cook neither tried to run to the west or east, he steered straight for
the south. He was now in the latitude attributed to Cape Circumcision,
and seventy leagues south of the position assigned to it. Hence he
concluded that if land existed as stated by Bouvet (which is now known
to be a fact) it could only be an inconsiderable island, and not a
large continent.
The captain had no further reason for remaining in these latitudes. In
67 degrees 15 minutes southern latitude a new ice barrier, running
from east to west closed the passage for him, and he could find no
opening in it. Prudence enjoined his remaining no longer in this
region, for two-thirds of the summer were already passed. He therefore
determined to seek, with no further delay, the land recently
discovered by the French.
On the 1st of February, 1773, the vessels were in 48 degrees 30
minutes south latitude, and 38 degrees 7 minutes west longitude, very
nearly the parallel attributed to St. Maurice Island.
After a fruitless cruise, productive of no results, they were forced
to conclude, that if there really were land in these latitudes it
could only be a small island, otherwise it could not have escaped
their search.
[Illustration: New Zealand war canoe. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
On the 8th of February, the captain found to his dismay that the
-Adventure- was no longer sailing with him. He waited in vain for two
days, firing at close intervals and keeping great fires upon the deck
all night. The -Resolution- had to continue her voyage alone.
On the morning of the 17th of February, between twelve and three
o'clock, the crew witnessed a magnificent spectacle, then first seen
by European eyes. It was an aurora borealis. "The officer of the
watch," says the narrative, "noticed that from time to time rays left
it in spiral and circular forms, and that then its brilliancy
increased, which gave it an extremely beautiful appearance. It
appeared to have no particular bearing, but remained motionless in the
heavens, which it filled entirely from time to time, by throwing its
light to all parts."
After another attempt to pass the arctic circle, an attempt, which the
fogs, the rain, the snow, and the ice-blocks forced him to relinquish,
Cook resumed his course to the north, convinced that he left no large
land behind him, and regained New Zealand, which he had agreed upon
with the -Adventure- as a rendezvous in the event of separation.
On the 25th of March he cast anchor in Dusky Bay, after one hundred
and seventy consecutive days of sea, in which he had not made less
than three thousand six hundred and sixty leagues, without one sight
of land.
As soon as he could find suitable anchorage, the captain hastened to
avail himself of the resources for feeding his crew, which the country
furnished in fowls, fish, and vegetables, whilst he himself, generally
with the plumb-line in his hand, traversed the environs of the bay. He
met only a few natives, with whom he had little intercourse. But one
family becoming somewhat familiarized, established itself a hundred
yards from the landing-place. Cook gave a concert for them, in which
the fife and cornet were lavished on them in vain, the New Zealanders
awarded the palm to the drum!
On the 18th of April, a chief came on board with his daughter. But
before entering the ship he rapped her sides with a green wand he held
in his hand, and addressed an harangue or invocation in modulated
accents, to the strangers, a very general custom with the islanders of
the southern sea. Scarcely was his foot on deck, when he offered the
captain a bit of cloth, and a green talc hatchet, an unprecedented act
of generosity for a New Zealander.
The chief visited every part of the ship. In order to testify his
gratitude to the captain he plunged his fingers into a bag at his
waist, and offered to anoint his hair with the tainted oil it
contained. Cook had much difficulty in escaping from this proof of
affection, which had not been very pleasing to Byron in the Strait of
Magellan, but the painter Hodges was forced to submit to the operation,
to the amusement of the entire crew. The chief then departed, to
return no more, taking with him nine hatchets, and thirty pairs of
carpenter's scissors, which the officers had given him. Richer than
all the New Zealanders put together, he no doubt hastened to stow away
his treasures, in the fear that some one would deprive him of them.
Before leaving Cook landed five geese, the last of those he had
brought from the Cape, thinking that they would multiply in this
little inhabited spot, and he had a plot of land cleared in which he
planted kitchen garden seeds. Thus he worked at the same time for the
natives and for the future navigators who should find precious
resources here.
When Cook had completed the hydrographical survey of Dusky Bay, he
started for Queen Charlotte's Sound, the rendezvous assigned to
Captain Furneaux.
On the 17th of May the crew witnessed a magnificent spectacle. Six
water-spouts, one of them sixty feet wide at its base, were visible a
hundred feet from the ship in succession, drawing the clouds and sea
into communication by their powerful suction. This phenomenon lasted
three quarters of an hour, and the first feeling of fear which it
awakened in the breasts of the crew was soon merged in one of
admiration, the greater as at this time such marvels were little known.
Next day, just as the -Resolution- entered Queen Charlotte's Sound,
the -Adventure- was seen, and proved to have been waiting for six
weeks. Furneaux, after reaching Van Diemen's Land on the 1st of March,
had coasted it for seventeen days, but he was forced to desist before
ascertaining whether it was, as he supposed, a part of New Holland.
The refutation of this error was reserved for the surgeon, Bass. On
the 9th of April after reaching Queen's Charlotte's Sound, the captain
of the -Adventure- had profited by his leisure to lay out a garden and
to open relations with the natives, who had furnished him with
irresistible proofs of their cannibalism.
Before he continued his voyage of discovery, Cook followed the same
line of conduct as at Dusky Bay. He landed a ram and a sheep, a goat
and a she-goat, a pig and a sow. He also planted potatoes, which only
existed upon the more southerly of the two islands which form New
Zealand.
The natives resembled those of Dusky Bay, but they appeared more
thoughtless, ran from room to room during supper, and devoured
everything that was offered to them. It was impossible to induce them
to taste wine or brandy, but they were very partial to sugar and water.
Cook says,--
"They laid hands on all they saw, but they gave up anything so soon as
we made them understand by signs that we could not, or would not give
it to them. They particularly admired glass bottles, which they called
Tawhaw, but when the durability and use of iron was explained to them
they preferred it to glass-ware, ribbons, or white paper. Amongst them
were several women, whose lips were covered with little holes, painted
a blueish black, whilst vivid red formed of chalk and oil, covered
their cheeks. Like the natives of Dusky Bay, they had small legs and
bodies, but thick knees, which proves that they take little exercise
and sit cross-legged. The almost perpetual squatting in their pirogues
no doubt also adds to these peculiarities.
"The colour of their skin is clear brown, their hair is very black,
their faces are round, their nose and lips are somewhat thick but not
flat, their eyes are black and bright enough, and tolerably expressive.
"Placed in a row, the natives took off their outer garments, and one
of them sang a rough sort of song, the others accompanying him with
gestures. They stretched out their hands, and alternately struck their
feet against the ground with frantic contortions. The last words they
repeated in chorus, and we easily distinguished a sort of metre, but I
am not sure that there was any rhyme; the music was wild and
monotonous."
Some of the New Zealanders begged for news of Tupia, and when they
heard of his death, they expressed their grief by a kind of
lamentation plainly artificial.
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