On the 24th January the two vessels started for the Sandwich Islands,
and stopped for a short time off Owyhee, Waohoo, and Ottoway. Since
the murder of Cook many changes had taken place in this archipelago.
English and American vessels now sometimes visited it to take whales,
or trade in furs, and their captains had given the natives a taste for
brandy and fire-arms. Quarrels between the petty chiefs had become
more frequent, the most complete anarchy prevailed everywhere, and the
number of inhabitants was already greatly diminished.
[Illustration: Map of the two Americas.]
On the 17th March, 1792, Vancouver left the Sandwich Islands and
steered for America, of which he soon sighted the part called by Drake
New Albion. Here he almost immediately met Captain Grey, who was
supposed to have penetrated, in the -Washington-, into De Fuca Strait,
and discovered a vast sea. Grey at once disavowed the discoveries with
which he was so generously credited, explaining that he had only
sailed fifty miles up the strait, which runs from east to west till it
reaches a spot where, according to some natives, it veers to the north
and disappears.
Vancouver in his turn entered De Fuca Strait, and recognized Discovery
Port, Admiralty Entry, Birch Bay, Desolation Sound, Johnston Strait,
and Broughton Archipelago. Before reaching the northern extremity of
this long arm of the sea, he met two small Spanish vessels under the
command of Quadra. The two captains compared notes, and gave their
names to the chief island of the large group known collectively as New
Georgia.
Vancouver next visited Nootka Sound and the Columbia River, whence he
sailed to San Francisco, off which he anchored. It will be understood
that it is impossible to follow the details of the minute survey of
the vast stretch of coast between Cape Mendocino and Port Conclusion,
in N. lat. 56 degrees 37 minutes, which required no less than three
successive trips.
"Now," says the great navigator, "that we have achieved the chief aim
of the king in ordering this voyage, I flatter myself that our very
detailed survey of the north-west coast of America will dispel all
doubts, and do away with all erroneous opinions as to a north-west
passage; surely no one will now believe in there being a communication
between the North Pacific and the interior of the American continent
in the part traversed by us."
Leaving Nootka, to survey the coast of South America before returning
to Europe, Vancouver touched at the small Cocoa-Nut Island--which, as
we have already observed, little deserves its name--cast anchor off
Valparaiso, doubled Cape Horn, took in water at St. Helena, and
re-entered the Thames on the 12th September, 1795.
The fatigue incidental to this long expedition had so undermined the
health of the explorer that he died in May, 1798, leaving the account
of his voyage to be finished by his brother.
Throughout the arduous survey, occupying four years, of 900 miles of
coast, the -Discovery- and -Chatham- lost but two men. It will be seen
from this how apt a pupil of Cook the great navigator was; and we do
not know whether most to admire in Vancouver his care for his sailors
and humanity to the natives, or the wonderful nautical skill he
displayed in this dangerous cruise.
While explorers thus succeeded each other on the western coast of
America, colonists were not idle inland. Already established on the
borders of the Atlantic, where a series of states had been founded
from Florida to Canada, the white men were now rapidly forcing their
way westwards. Trappers, and -coureurs des bois-, as the French
hunters were called, had discovered vast tracts of land suitable for
cultivation, and many English squatters had already taken root, not,
however, without numerous conflicts with the original owners of the
soil, whom they daily tried to drive into the interior. Emigrants were
soon attracted in large numbers by the fertility of a virgin soil, and
the more liberal constitution of the various states.
Their number increased to such an extent, that at the end of the
seventeenth century the heirs of Lord Baltimore estimated the produce
of the sale of their lands at three thousand pounds; and in the middle
of the following century, 1750, the successors of William Penn also
made a profit ten times as great as the original price of their
property. Yet emigration was even then not sufficiently rapid, and
convicts were introduced. Maryland numbered 1981 in 1750. Many
scandalous abuses also resulted from the compulsory signing by new
comers of agreements they did not understand.
Although the lands bought of the Indians were far from being all
occupied, the English colonists continued to push their way inland, at
the risk of encounters with the legitimate owners of the soil.
In the north the Hudson's Bay Company, holding a monopoly of the fur
trade, were always on the look-out for new hunting-grounds, for those
originally explored were soon exhausted. Their trappers made their way
far into the western wilds, and gained valuable information from the
Indians whom they pressed into their service, and taught to get drunk.
By this means the existence of a river flowing northwards, past some
copper-mines, from which some natives brought fine specimens to Fort
Prince of Wales, was ascertained. The company at once, i.e. in 1769,
decided to send out an expedition, to the command of which they
appointed Samuel Hearn.
For a journey to the Arctic regions, where provisions are difficult to
obtain, and the cold is intense, a few well-seasoned men are required,
who can endure the fatigue of an arduous march over snow, and bear up
against hunger. Hearn took with him only two whites, and a few Indians
on whom he could depend.
In spite of the great skill of the guides, who knew the country, and
were familiar with the habits of the game it contained, provisions
soon failed. Two hundred miles from Fort Prince of Wales the Indians
abandoned Hearn and his two companions, who were obliged to retrace
their steps.
The chief of the expedition, however, was a rough sailor, accustomed
to privations, so he was not discouraged. If he had failed the first
time, that was no reason why a second attempt should not succeed.
In March, 1770, Hearn started again to try and cross the unknown
districts. This time he was alone with five Indians, for he had
noticed that the inability of the whites to endure fatigue excited the
contempt of the natives. He had penetrated 500 miles when the severity
of the weather compelled him to wait for a less severe temperature. He
had had a terrible experience. At one time to have, indeed, more game
than can be eaten; but more often to have no food whatever, and be
compelled for a week at a time to gnaw old leather, pick bones which
had been thrown aside, or to seek, often in vain, for a few berries on
the trees; and lastly, to endure fearful cold--such is the life of an
explorer in these Arctic regions.
Hearn started once more in April, wandered about the woods until
August, and had arranged to spend the winter with an Indian tribe
which had received him well, when an accident which deprived him of
his quadrant compelled him to continue his journey.
Privations, miseries, and disappointments, had not quenched the ardour
of Hearn's indomitable spirit. He started again on the 7th December,
and penetrating westwards below the 60th parallel N. lat. he came to a
river. Here he built a canoe, and went in it down the stream, which
flowed into an innumerable series of large and small lakes. Finally,
on the 13th July, 1771, he reached the Coppermine River. The Indians
with him now declared that they had been for some weeks in the country
of the Esquimaux, and that they meant to massacre all they should meet
of that hated race.
An encounter very soon took place.
"Coming," says Hearn, "upon a party of Esquimaux asleep in their tents,
the Indians fell upon them suddenly, and I was compelled to witness
the massacre of the poor creatures."
Of twenty individuals, not one escaped the sanguinary rage of the
Indians; and they put to death with indescribable tortures an old
woman who had in the first instance eluded them.
"After this horrible carnage," says Hearn, "we sat down on the grass,
and made a good dinner off fresh salmon."
Here the river widened considerably. Had Hearn arrived at its mouth?
The water was still quite sweet. There were, however, signs of a tide
on the shores, and a number of seals were disporting themselves in the
water. A quantity of whale blubber was found in the tents of the
Esquimaux. Everything in fact combined to prove that the sea was near.
Hearn seized his telescope, and saw stretching before him a huge sheet
of water, dotted with islands. There was no longer any doubt; it was
the sea!
On the 30th June Hearn got back to the English posts, after an absence
of no less than a year and five months.
The company recognized the immense service just rendered by Hearn, by
appointing him Governor of Fort Prince of Wales. During his expedition
to Hudson's Bay, La Perouse visited this post, and there found the
journal of Samuel Hearn's expedition. The French navigator returned it,
on condition that he would publish it. We do not know why its
appearance in accordance with the promise given by the English
traveller to the French sailor was delayed until 1795.
Not until the close of the eighteenth century did the immense chain of
lakes, rivers, and portages become known, which, emanating from Lake
Superior, receive all the waters flowing from the Rocky Mountains, and
divert them to the Arctic Ocean. It was to the brothers Frobisher, fur
traders, and to a Mr. Pond, who reached Athabasca, that their
discovery is partially due.
Thanks to their efforts, travelling in these parts became less
difficult. One explorer succeeded another, posts were established, and
the country was opened to all comers. Soon after a rumour was spread
of the discovery of a large river flowing in a north-westerly
direction.
It was Alexander Mackenzie who gave his name to it. Starting on the
3rd June, 1789, from Fort Chippewyan, on the southern shores of the
Lake of the Hills, accompanied by a few Canadians, and several Indians
who had been with Samuel Hearn, he reached 67 degrees 45 minutes N.
lat., where he heard that the sea was not far off on the east, but
that he was even nearer to it on the west. It was evident that he was
quite close to the north-western extremity of America.
On the 12th July, Mackenzie reached a large sheet of shallow water
covered with ice, which he could not believe to be the sea, though no
land could be seen on the horizon. It was, however, the Northern Ocean,
as he became assured when he saw the water rising, although the wind
was not violent. The tide was coming in! The traveller then gained an
island at a little distance from the shore, from which he saw several
whales gambolling in the water. He therefore named the island, which
is situated in N. lat. 69 degrees 11 minutes, Whale Island. On the
12th September the expedition safely returned to Fort Chippewyan.
Three years later Mackenzie, whose thirst for discovery was unslaked,
ascended Peace River, which rises in the Rocky Mountains. In 1793,
after forcing his way across this rugged chain, he made out on the
other side the Tacoutche-Tesse River, which flows in a south-westerly
direction. In the midst of dangers and privations more easily imagined
than described, Mackenzie descended this river to its mouth, below
Prince of Wales Islands. There, he wrote with a mixture of grease and
vermilion, the following laconic but eloquent inscription on a wall of
rock: "Alexander Mackenzie, come from Canada overland, July 22nd,
1793." On the 24th August he re-entered Fort Chippewyan.
[Illustration: Mackenzie's first view of the North Pacific Ocean.]
In South America no scientific expedition took place during the first
half of the eighteenth century. We have now only to speak of Condamine.
We have already told of his discoveries in America, explaining how
when the work was done he had allowed Bougner to return to Europe, and
left Jussieu to continue the collection of unknown plants and animals
which was to enrich science, whilst he himself went down the Amazon to
its Mouth.
"Condamine," says Maury in his "Histoire de l'Académie des Sciences,"
"may be called the Humboldt of the eighteenth century. An intellectual
and scientific man, he gave proof in this memorable expedition of an
heroic devotion to the progress of knowledge. The funds granted to him
by the king for his expedition were not sufficient; he added 100,000
livres from his private purse; and the fatigue and suffering he
underwent led to the loss of his ears and legs. The victim of his
enthusiasm for science, on his return home he met with nothing but
ridicule and sarcasm from a public who could not understand a martyr
who aimed at winning anything but Heaven. In him was recognized, not
the indefatigable explorer who had braved so many dangers, but the
infirm and deaf M. de Condamine, who always held his ear-trumpet in
his hand. Content, however, with the recognition of his fellow-savants,
to which Buffon gave such eloquent expression in his reply to the
address at his reception at the French Academy, Condamine consoled
himself by composing songs; and maintained until his death, which was
hastened by all he had undergone, the zeal for information on all
subjects, even torture, which led him to question the executioner on
the scaffold of Damiens."
[Illustration: Portrait of Condamine. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
Few travellers before Condamine had had an opportunity of penetrating
into Brazil. The learned explorer hoped, therefore, to render his
journey useful by making a map of the course of the river, and putting
down all his observations on the singular costumes worn by the natives
of that little frequented country.
After Orellana, whose adventurous trip we have related, Pedro de Ursua
was sent in 1559 by the Viceroy of Peru to seek for Lake Parima and
the El Dorado. He was murdered by a rebel soldier, who committed all
manner of outrages on his way down the river, and finished his course
by being abandoned on Trinity Island.
Efforts of this kind did not throw much light on the course of the
river. The Portuguese were more fortunate. In 1636 and 1637 Pedro
Texeira with forty-seven canoes, and a large number of Spaniards and
Indians, followed the Amazon as far as the junction of its tributary
the Napo, and then ascended, first it, and afterwards the Coca, to
within thirty miles of Quito, which he reached with a few men.
The map drawn up by Sanson after this trip, and as a matter of course
copied by all geographers, was extremely defective, and until 1717
there was no other. At that time the copy of a map drawn up by Father
Fritz, a German missionary, came out in Vol. xii. of the "Lettres
Édifiantes," a valuable publication, containing a multitude of
interesting historical and geographical facts. In this map it was
shown that the Napo is not the true source of the Amazon, and that the
latter, under the name of the Marañon, issues from Lake Guanuco,
thirty leagues east of Lima. The lower portion of the course of the
river was badly drawn, as Father Fritz was too ill when he went down
it to observe closely.
Leaving Tarqui, five leagues from Cuenca, on the 11th May, 1743,
Condamine passed Zaruma, a town once famous for its gold-mines, and
having crossed several rivers on the hanging bridges, which look like
huge hammocks slung from one side to the other, reached Loxa, four
degrees from the line, and 400 fathoms lower than Quito. Here he
noticed a remarkable difference of temperature, and found the
mountains to be mere hills compared with those of Quito.
Between Loxa and Jaen de Bracamoros the last buttresses of the Andes
are crossed. In this district rain falls every day throughout the year,
so that a long stay cannot be made there. The whole country has
declined greatly from its former prosperity. Loyola, Valladolid, Jaen,
and the greater number of the Peruvian towns at a distance from the
sea, and the main road between Carthagena and Lima, were in
Condamine's time little more than hamlets. Yet forests of cocoa-nut
trees grow all around Jaen, the natives thinking no more of them than
they do of the gold dust brought down by their rivers.
Condamine embarked on the Chincipe, wider here than the Seine at Paris,
and went down it as far as its junction with the Marañon, beyond which
the latter river becomes navigable, although its course is broken by a
number of falls and rapids, and in many places narrows till it is but
twenty fathoms wide. The most celebrated of these narrows is the
-pongo-, or gate, of Manseriche, in the heart of the Cordillera, where
the Amazon has hewn for itself a bed only fifty-five fathoms wide,
with all but perpendicular sides. Condamine, attended only by a single
negro, met with an almost unparalleled adventure on a raft in this
pongo.
"The stream," he says, "the height of which had diminished twenty-five
feet in thirty-six hours, continued to decrease in volume. In the
middle of the night, part of a large branch of a tree caught between
the woodwork of my boat, penetrating further and further as the latter
sunk with the water, so that if I had not been awake and on guard at
the time, I should have found myself hanging from a tree, on my raft.
The least of the evils threatening me would have been the loss of my
journals and note-books, the fruit of eight years of work. Fortunately,
I eventually found means to free my raft, and float it again."
[Illustration: Celebrated narrows of Manseriche. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
In the midst of the woods near the ruined town of Santiago, where
Condamine arrived on the 10th July, lived the Xibaro Indians, who had
been for a century in revolt against the Spaniards, who tried to force
them to labour in the gold-mines.
Beyond the pongo of Manseriche a new world was entered, a perfect
ocean of fresh water--a labyrinth of lakes, rivers, and channels, set
in an impenetrable forest. Although he had lived in the open air for
more than seven years, Condamine was struck dumb by this novel
spectacle of water and trees only, with nothing else besides. Leaving
Borja on the 14th July, the traveller soon passed the mouth of the
Morona, which comes down from the volcano of Sangay, the ashes from
which are sometimes flung beyond Guayaquil. He next passed the three
mouths of the Pastaca, a river at this time so much swollen that the
width of no one of its mouths could be estimated.
On the 19th of the same month Condamine reached Laguna, where Pedro
Maldonado, governor of the province of Esmeraldas, who had come down
the Pastaca, had been waiting for him for six weeks. At this time
Laguna was a large community, of some thousand Indians capable of
bearing arms, who recognized the authority of the missionaries of the
different tribes.
"In making a map of the course of the Amazon," says Condamine, "I
provided myself with a resource against the -ennui- of a quiet voyage
with nothing to break the monotony of the scenery, though that scenery
was new to me. My attention was continually on the strain as, compass
and watch in hand, I noted the deflexions in the course of the river,
the time occupied in passing from one bend to another, the variations
in the breadth of its bed and in that of the mouths of its tributaries,
the angle formed by the latter at the confluence, the position and
size of the islands, and above all the rate of the current and that of
the canoe. Now on land and now in the canoe, employing various modes
of measurement, which it would be superfluous to explain here, every
instant was occupied. I often sounded, and measured geometrically the
breadth of the river and that of its tributaries. I took the height of
the sun at the meridian every day, and I noted its amplitude at its
rising and setting, wherever I went."
On the 25th July, after having passed the Tigre River, Condamine came
to a new mission station, that of a tribe called Yameos, recently
rescued from the woods by the Fathers. Their language is difficult to
learn, and their mode of pronouncing it extraordinary. Some of their
words are nine or ten syllables long, and yet they can only count up
to three. They use a kind of pea-shooter with great skill, firing from
it small arrows tipped with a poison which causes instantaneous death.
The following day the explorer passed the mouth of the Ucayale, one of
the most important of the tributaries of the Marañon, and which might
even be its source. Beyond it the main stream widens sensibly.
Condamine reached on the 27th the mission station of the Omaguas,
formerly a powerful nation, whose dwelling extended along the banks of
the Amazon for a distance of 200 leagues below the Napo. Originally
strangers in the land, they are supposed to have come down some river
rising in Granada, and to have fled from the Spanish yoke. The word
Omagua means flat-head in Peruvian, and these people have the singular
custom of squeezing the foreheads of new-born babies between two flat
pieces of wood, to make them, as they say, resemble the full moon.
They also use two curious plants, the floripondio and the curupa,
which makes them drunk for twenty-four hours, and causes very
wonderful dreams. So that opium and hatchich have their counterparts
in Peru.
[Illustration: Omagua Indians.]
Cinchona, ipecacuanha, simaruba, sarsaparilla, guaiacum, cocoa, and
vanilla grow on the banks of the Marañon, as does also a kind of
india-rubber, of which the natives make bottles, boots, and syringes,
which, according to Condamine, require no piston. They are of the
shape of hollow pears, and are pierced at the end with a little hole,
into which a pipe is fitted. This contrivance is much used by the
Omaguas; and when a fête is given, the host, as a matter of politeness,
always presents one to each of his guests, who use them before any
ceremonial banquet.
Changing boats at San Joaquin, Condamine arrived at the mouth of Napo
in time to witness, during the night of the 31st July or the 1st
August, the emersion of the first satellite of Jupiter, so that he was
able to determine exactly the latitude and longitude of the spot--a
valuable observation, from which all other positions on the journey
could be calculated.
Pevas, which was reached the next day, is the last of the Spanish
missions on the Marañon. The Indians collected there were neither all
of the same race nor all converts to Christianity. They still wore
bone ornaments in the nostrils and the lips, and had their cheeks
riddled with holes, in which were fixed the feathers of birds of every
colour.
St. Paul is the first Portuguese mission. There the river is no less
than 900 fathoms wide, and often rises in violent storms. The
traveller was agreeably surprised to find the Indian women possessed
of pet birds, locks, iron keys, needles, looking-glasses, and other
European utensils, procured at Para in exchange for cocoa. The native
canoes are much more convenient than those used by the Indians of the
Spanish possessions. They are in fact regular little brigantines,
sixty feet long by seven wide, manned by forty oarsmen.
Between St. Paul and Coari several large and beautiful rivers flow
into the Amazon. On the south the Yutay, Yuruca, Tefé, and Coari; on
the north the Putumayo and Yupura. On the shores of the last-named
river lives a cannibal race. Here Texeira set up a barrier, on the
26th June, 1639, which was to mark the frontier between the district
in which the Brazilian and Peruvian languages respectively were to be
used in dealing with the Indians.
Purus River and the Rio Negro, connecting the Orinoco with the Amazon,
the banks dotted with Portuguese missions under the direction of the
monks of Mount Carmel, were successively surveyed. The first reliable
information on the important geographical fact of the communication
between the two great rivers, is to be found in the works of Condamine,
and his sagacious comments on the journeys of the missionaries who
preceded him. It was in these latitudes that the golden lake of Parimé
and the fabulous town of Manoa del Dorado are said to have been
situated. Here, too, lived the Manaos Indians, who so long resisted
the Portuguese.
Now were passed successively the mouth of the Madera River--so called
on account of the quantity of timber which drifts down from it, the
port of Pauxis--beyond which the Marañon takes the name of the Amazon,
and where the tide begins to be felt, although the sea is more than
200 miles distant--and the fortress of Topayos, at the mouth of a
river coming down from the mines of Brazil, on the borders of which
live the Tupinambas.
Not until September did the mountains come in sight on the
north--quite a novel spectacle, since for two months Condamine had not
seen a single hill. They were the first buttresses of the Guiana chain.
On the 6th September, opposite Fort Paru, Condamine left the Amazon,
and passed by a natural canal to the Xingu River, called by Father
D'Acunha the Paramaribo. The port of Curupa was then reached, and
lastly Para, a large town, with regular streets and houses of rough or
hewn stone. To complete his map, the explorer was obliged to visit the
mouth of the Amazon, where he embarked for Cayenne, arriving there on
the 20th February, 1774.
This long voyage had the most important results. For the first time
the course of the Amazon had been laid down in a thoroughly scientific
manner, and the connexion between it and the Orinoco ascertained.
Moreover Condamine had collected a vast number of interesting
observations on natural history, physical geography, astronomy, and
the new science of anthropology, then in its earliest infancy.
We have now to relate the travels of a man who recognized, better than
any one else had done, the connexion between geography and the other
physical sciences. We allude to Alexander von Humboldt. To him is due
the credit of having opened to travellers this fertile source of
knowledge.
[Illustration: Portrait of Alex. de Humboldt. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
Born at Berlin, in 1759, Humboldt's earliest studies were carried on
under Campe, the well-known editor of many volumes of travels. Endowed
with a great taste for botany, Humboldt made friends at the university
of Göttingen with Forster the younger, who had just made the tour of
the world with Captain Cook. This friendship, and the enthusiastic
accounts given of his adventures by Forster, probably did much to
rouse in Humboldt a longing to travel. He took the lead in the study
of geology, botany, chemistry, and animal magnetism; and to perfect
himself in the various sciences, he visited England, Holland, Italy,
and Switzerland. In 1797, after the death of his mother, who objected
to his leaving Europe, he went to Paris, where he became acquainted
with Aimé Bonpland, a young botanist, with whom he at once agreed to
go on several exploring expeditions.
It had been arranged that Humboldt should accompany Captain Baudin,
but the delay in the starting of his expedition exhausted the young
enthusiast's patience, and he went to Marseilles with the intention of
joining the French army in Egypt. For two whole months he waited for
the sailing of the frigate which was to take him; and, weary of
inaction, he went to Spain with his friend Bonpland, in the hope of
obtaining permission to visit the Spanish possessions in America.
This was no easy matter, but Humboldt was a man of rare perseverance.
He was thoroughly well-informed, he had first-rate introductions, and
he was, moreover, already becoming known. In spite, therefore, of the
extreme reluctance of the government, he was at last authorized to
explore the Spanish colonies, and take any astronomical or geodesic
observations he chose.
The two friends left Corunna on the 5th June, 1799, and reached the
Canaries thirteen days later. Of course, as naturalists they were in
duty bound not to land at Teneriffe without ascending the Peak.
"Scarcely any naturalist," says Humboldt in a letter to La Metterie,
"who, like myself, has passed through to the Indies, has had time to
do more than go to the foot of this colossal volcano, and admire the
delightful gardens of Orotava. Fortunately for me our frigate, the
-Pizarro-, stopped for six days. I examined in detail the layers of
which the peak of Teyde is composed. We slept in the moonlight at a
height of 1200 fathoms. At two o'clock in the morning we started for
the summit, where we arrived at eight o'clock, in spite of the violent
wind, the great heat of the ground, which burnt our boots, and the
intense cold of the atmosphere. I will tell you nothing about the
magnificent view, which included the volcanic islands of Lancerote,
Canaria, and Gomera, at our feet; the desert, twenty leagues square,
strewn with pumice-stone and lava, and without insects or birds,
separating us from thickets of laurel-trees and heaths; or of the
vineyards studded with palms, banana, and dragon-trees, the roots of
which are washed by the waves. We went into the very crater itself. It
is not more than forty or sixty feet deep. The summit is 1904 fathoms
above the sea-level, as estimated by Borda in a very careful geometric
measurement.... The crater of the Peak--that is to say, of the
summit--has been inactive for several centuries, lava flowing from the
sides only. The crater, however, provides an enormous quantity of
sulphur and sulphate of iron."
In July, Humboldt and Bonpland arrived at Cumana, in that part of
America known as Terra Firma. Here they spent some weeks in examining
the traces left by the great earthquake of 1797. They then determined
the position of Cumana, which was placed a degree and a half too far
north on all the maps--an error due to the fact of the current bearing
to the north near La Trinidad, having deceived all travellers. In
December, 1799, Humboldt wrote from Caracas to the astronomer
Lalande:--
"I have just completed an intensely interesting journey in the
interior of Paria, in the Cordillera of Cocolar, Tumeri, and Guiri. I
had two or three mules loaded with instruments, dried plants, &c. We
penetrated to the Capuchin mission, which had never been visited by
any naturalist. We discovered a great number of new plants, chiefly
varieties of palms; and we are about to start for the Orinoco, and
propose pushing on from it perhaps to San Carlos on the Rio Negro,
beyond the equator. We have dried more than 1600 plants, and described
more than 500 birds, picked up numberless shells and insects, and I
have made some fifty drawings. I think that is pretty well in four
months, considering the broiling heat of this zone."
During this first trip Humboldt visited the Chayma and Guarauno
Missions. He also climbed to the summit of the Tumiriquiri, and went
down into the Guacharo cavern, the entrance to which, framed as it is
with the most luxuriant vegetation, is truly magnificent. From it
issues a considerable river, and its dim recesses echo to the gloomy
notes of birds. It is the Acheron of the Chayma Indians, for,
according to their mythology and that of the natives of Orinoco, the
souls of the dead go to this cavern. To go down into the Guacharo
signifies in their language to die.
The Indians go into the Guacharo cavern once a year, in the middle of
summer, and destroy the greater number of the nests in it with long
poles. At this time many thousands of birds die a violent death, and
the old inhabitants of the cave hover above the heads of the Indians
with piercing cries, as if they would defend their broods.
The young birds which fall to the ground are opened on the spot. Their
peritoneum is covered with a thick layer of fat, extending from the
abdomen to the anus, and forming a kind of cushion between the legs.
At the time called at Caripe the oil harvest, the Indians build
themselves huts of palm leaves outside the cavern, and then light
fires of brushwood, over which they hang clay pots filled with the fat
of the young birds recently killed. This fat, known under the name of
the Guacharo oil or butter, is half-liquid, transparent, without smell,
and so pure that it can be kept a year without turning rancid.
Humboldt continues: "We passed fifteen days in the Caripe valley,
situated at a height of 952 Castilian varas above the sea-level, and
inhabited by naked Indians. We saw some black monkeys with red beards.
We had the satisfaction of being treated with the greatest kindness by
the Capuchin monks and the missionaries living amongst these
semi-barbarous people."
[Illustration: Itinerary of Humboldt's route in equinoctial America.]
From the Caripe valley the two travellers went back to Cumana by way
of the Santa Maria Mountains and the Catuaro missions, and on the 21st
November they arrived--having come by sea--at Caracas, a town situated
in the midst of a valley rich in cocoa, cotton, and coffee, yet with a
European climate.
Humboldt turned his stay at Caracas to account by studying the light
of the stars of the southern hemisphere, for he had noticed that
several, notably the Altar, the Feet of the Centaur, and others,
seemed to have changed since the time of La Caille.
At the same time he put his collections in order, despatching part of
them to Europe, and most thoroughly examined some rocks, with a view
to ascertaining of what materials the earth's crust was here composed.
After having explored the neighbourhood of Caracas, and ascended the
Silla, which, although close to the town, had never been scaled by any
native, Humboldt and Bonpland went to Valencia, along the shores of a
lake called Tacarigua by the Indians, and exceeding in size that of
Neufchâtel in Switzerland. Nothing could give any idea of the richness
and variety of the vegetation. But the interest of the lake consists
not only in its picturesque and romantic beauty; the gradual decrease
in the volume of its waters attracted the attention of Humboldt, who
attributed it to the reckless cutting down of the forests in its
neighbourhood, resulting in the exhaustion of its sources.
Near this lake Humboldt received proof of the truth of the accounts he
had heard of an extraordinary tree, the palo de la vaca, or cow-tree,
which yields a balsamic and very nutritive milk, drawn off from
incisions made in the bark.
The most arduous part of the trip began at Porto Caballo, at the
entrance to the llanos, or perfectly flat plains stretching between
the hills of the coast and the Orinoco valley.
"I am not sure," says Humboldt, "that the first sight of the llanos is
not as surprising as that of the Andes."
Nothing in fact could be more striking than this sea of grass, from
which whirls of dust rise up continually, although not a breath of
wind is felt at Calabozo, in the centre of this vast plain. Humboldt
first tested the power of the gymnotus, or electric eel, large numbers
of which are met with in all the tributaries of the Orinoco. The
Indians, who were afraid of exposing themselves to the electric
discharge of these singular creatures, proposed sending some horses
into the marsh containing them.
"The extraordinary noise made by the shoes of the horses," says
Humboldt, "made the eels come out of the ooze and prepare for battle.
The yellowish livid gymnoti, resembling serpents, swam on the top of
the water, and squeezed themselves under the bodies of the quadrupeds
which had disturbed them. The struggle which ensued between animals so
differently constituted presented a very striking spectacle. The
Indians, armed with harpoons and long canes, surrounded the pond on
every side, and even climbed into the trees, the branches of which
stretched horizontally over the water. Their wild cries, as they
brandished their long sticks, prevented the horses from running away
and getting back to the shores of the pond; whilst the eels, driven
mad by the noise, defended themselves by repeated discharges from
their electric batteries. For a long time they appeared victorious,
and some horses succumbed to the violence of the repeated shocks which
they received upon their vital organs from every side. They were
stunned, and sank beneath the water.
"Others, panting for breath, with manes erect, and wild eyes full of
the keenest suffering, tried to fly from the scene, but the merciless
Indians drove them back into the water. A very few, who succeeded in
eluding the vigilance of the guards, regained the bank, stumbling at
every step, and lay down upon the sand, exhausted with fatigue, every
limb paralyzed from the electric shocks received from the eels.
"I never remember receiving a more terrible shock from a Leyden jar
than I did from a gymnotus on which I accidentally trod just after it
came out of the water."
The astronomic position of Calabozo having been determined, Humboldt
and Bonpland resumed their journey to the Orinoco. The Uriticu, with
its numerous and ferocious crocodiles, and the Apure, one of the
tributaries of the Orinoco, the banks of which are covered with a
luxuriant vegetation such as is only met with in the tropics, were
successively crossed or descended.
The latter stream is flanked on either side by thick hedges, with
openings here and there, through which boars, tigers, and other wild
animals, made their way to quench their thirst. When the shades of
night shut in the forest, so silent by day, it resounds with the cries
of birds and the howling or roaring of beasts of prey, vying with each
other as to which shall make the most noise.
While the Uriticu is inhabited by fierce crocodiles, the Apure is the
home of a small fish called the "carabito," which attacks bathers with
great fury, often biting out large pieces of flesh. It is only four or
five inches long, but more formidable than the largest crocodile, and
the waters it frequents are carefully avoided by the Indians, in spite
of their fondness for bathing, and the relief it affords them,
persecuted as they are by ants and mosquitoes.
Our travellers went down the Orinoco as far as the Temi, which is
connected by a short portage with the Cano-Pimichino, a tributary of
the Rio Negro.
The banks of the Temi, and the adjacent forests, are often inundated,
and then the Indians make waterways, two or three feet wide, between
the trees. Nothing could be more quaint or imposing than floating
amongst the gigantic growths, beneath their green foliage. Sometimes,
three or four hundred leagues inland, the traveller comes upon a troop
of fresh-water dolphins, spouting up water and compressed air in the
manner which has gained for them the name of blowers.
[Illustration: Gigantic vegetation on the banks of the Temi.]
It took four days to transport the canoes from the Tenir to the
Cano-Pimichino, as a path had to be cleared with axes.
The Pimichino flows into the Rio-Negro, which is in its turn a
tributary of the Amazon.
Humboldt and Bonpland went down the Rio-Negro as far as San Carlos,
and then up the Casiquiaro, an important branch of the Orinoco, which
connects it with the Rio-Negro. The shores of the Casiquiaro are
inhabited by the Ydapaminores, who live entirely on smoked ants.
Lastly, the travellers went up the Orinoco nearly to its source, at
the foot of the Duida volcano, where their further progress was
stopped by the hostility of the Guaharibos and the Guaica Indians, who
were skilful marksmen with the bow and arrow. Here was discovered the
famous El Dorado lake, with its floating islets of talc.
Thus was finally solved the problem of the junction of the Orinoco and
the Marañon, which takes place on the borders of the Spanish and
Portuguese territories, two degrees above the equator.
The two travellers then floated with the current down the Orinoco,
traversing by this means five hundred leagues in twenty-five days,
after which they halted for three weeks at Angostura, to tide over the
time of the great heat, when fever is prevalent, regaining Cumana in
October, 1800.
"My health," says Humboldt, "was proof against the fatigue of a
journey of more than 1300 leagues, but my poor comrade Bonpland, was,
immediately on his return, seized with fever and sickness, which
nearly proved fatal. A constitution of exceptional vigour is necessary
to enable a traveller to bear the fatigue, privations, and
interruptions of every kind with which he has to contend in these
unhealthy districts, with impunity. We were constantly surrounded by
voracious tigers and crocodiles, stung by venomous mosquitoes and ants,
with no food for three months but water, bananas, fish, and tapioca,
now crossing the territory of the earth-eating Otomaques, now
wandering through the desolate regions below the equator, where not a
human creature is seen for 130 leagues. Few indeed are those who
survive such perils and such exertions, fewer still are those who,
having surmounted them, have sufficient courage and strength to
encounter them a second time."
We have seen what an important geographical discovery rewarded the
perseverance of the explorers who had completed the examination of the
whole of the district north of the Amazon, between Popayan and the
mountains of French Guiana. The results obtained in other branches of
science were no less novel and important.
Humboldt had discovered that there exists amongst the Indians of the
Upper Orinoco and the Rio Negro a race with extremely fair complexions,
differing entirely from the natives of the coast. He also noticed the
curious tribe of the Otomaques.
"These people," he says "who disfigure their bodies with hideous
paintings, eat nothing but loam for some three months, when the height
of the Orinoco cuts them off from the turtles which form their
ordinary food. Some monks say they mix earth with the fat of
crocodiles' tails, but this is a very false assertion. We saw
provisions made of unadulterated earth, prepared only by slow roasting
and moistening with water."
Amongst the most curious of the discoveries made by Humboldt, we must
mention that of the "curare," the virulent poison which he saw
manufactured by the Catarapeni and Maquiritare Indians, and a specimen
of which he sent to the Institute with the "dapiche," a variety of
Indian rubber hitherto unknown, being the gum which exudes
spontaneously from the roots of the trees known as "jacio" and
"cucurma," and dries underground.
Humboldt concluded his first journey by the exploration of the
southern districts of San Domingo and Jamaica, and by a short stay in
Cuba, where he and his companions made several experiments with a view
to facilitating the making of sugar, surveyed the coast of the island,
and took some astronomical observations.
These occupations were interrupted by the news of the starting of
Captain Baudin, who, it was said, was to double Cape Horn and examine
the coasts of Chili and Peru. Humboldt, who had promised to join the
expedition, at once left Cuba, and crossed South America, arriving on
the coast of Peru in time, as he thought, to receive the French
navigator. Although Humboldt had throughout his long journey worked
with a view to timing his arrival in the Peruvian capital to meet
Baudin, it was only when he reached Quito that he ascertained that the
new expedition was making for the Pacific by way of the Cape of Good
Hope.
In May, 1801, Humboldt, still accompanied by the faithful Bonpland,
embarked at Cartagena, whence he proposed going first to Santa Fé de
Bogota, and then to the lofty plains of Quito. To avoid the great heat
the travellers spent some time at the pretty village of Turbaco,
situated on the heights overlooking the coast, where they made the
necessary preparations for their journey. In one of their excursions
in the neighbourhood they visited a very strange region, of which
their Indian guides had often spoken under the name of -Volcanitos-.
This is a volcanic district, set in a forest of palms, and of the tree
called "tola," about two miles to the east of Turbaco. According to a
legend, the country was at one time one vast collection of burning
mountains, but the fire was quenched by a saint, who merely poured a
few drops of holy water upon it.
In the centre of an extensive plain Humboldt came upon some twenty
cones of greyish clay, about twenty-five feet high, the mouths of
which were full of water. As the travellers approached a hollow sound
was heard, succeeded in a few minutes by the escape of a great
quantity of gas. According to the Indians these phenomena had recurred
for many years.
Humboldt noticed that the gas which issues from these small volcanoes
was a far purer azote than could then be obtained by chemical
laboratories.
Santa Fé is situated in a valley 8600 feet above the sea-level. Shut
in on every side by lofty mountains, this valley appears to have been
formerly a large lake. The Rio-Bogota which receives all the waters of
the valley, has forced a passage for itself near the Tequendama farm,
on the south-west of Santa-Fé, beyond which it leaves the plain by a
narrow channel and flows into the Magdalena basin. As a natural
consequence, were this passage blocked, the whole plain of Bogota
would be inundated and the ancient lake restored. There exists amongst
the Indians a legend similar to that connected with Roland's Pass in
the Pyrenees, telling how one of their heroes split open the rocks and
drained dry the valley of Bogota, after which, content with his
exploit, he retired to the sacred town of Eraca, where he did penance
for 2000 years, inflicting upon himself the greatest torture.
The cataract of Tequendama, although not the largest in the world, yet
affords a very beautiful sight. When swollen by the addition of all
the waters of the valley, the river, a little above the Falls, is 175
feet wide, but on entering the defile which appears to have been made
by an earthquake, it is not more than forty feet in breadth. The abyss
into which it flings itself, is no less than 600 feet deep. Above this
vast precipice constantly rises a dense cloud of foam, which, falling
again almost immediately, is said to contribute greatly to the
fertility of the valley.
Nothing could be more striking than the contrast between the valley of
the Rio Bogota and that of the Magdalena: the one with the climate and
productions of Europe, the corn, the oaks and other trees of our
native land; the other with palms, sugar-canes, and all the growths of
the tropics.
One of the most interesting of the natural curiosities met with by our
travellers on the trip, was the bridge of Jcononzo, which they crossed
in September, 1801. At the bottom of one of the contracted ravines,
known as "cañons," peculiar to the Andes, a little stream, the Rio
Suma Paz, has forced for itself a narrow channel. To cross this river
would be impossible, had not nature herself provided two bridges, one
above the other, which are justly considered marvels of the country.
Three blocks of rock detached from one of the mountains by the
earthquake which produced this mighty fissure, have so fallen as to
balance each other and form a natural arch, to which access is
obtained by a path along the precipice. In the centre of this bridge
there is an opening through which the traveller may gaze down into the
infinite depth of the abyss, at the bottom of which rolls the torrent,
its terrible roar mingled with the incessant screaming of thousands of
birds. Sixty feet above this bridge is a second, fifty feet long by
forty wide, and not more than eight feet thick in the middle. To serve
as a parapet, the natives have made a slender balustrade of reeds
along the edges of this second bridge, from which the traveller can
obtain a fine view of the magnificent scene beneath him.
The heavy rain and bad roads made the journey to Quito very exhausting,
but for all that Humboldt and Bonpland only halted there for an
absolutely necessary rest, quickly pressing on for the Magdalena
valley, and the magnificent forests clothing the sides of the Trinidiu
in the Central Andes.
This mountain is considered one of the most difficult to cross in the
whole chain. Even when the weather is favourable, twelve days, at
least, are necessary for traversing the forests, in which not a human
creature is seen and no food can be obtained. The highest point is
1200 feet above the sea-level, and the path leading up to it is in
many parts only one foot wide. The traveller is generally carried,
bound to a chair in a sitting posture, on the back of a native, as a
porter carries a trunk.
"We preferred to go on foot," says Humboldt in a letter to his brother,
"and the weather being very fine we were only seventeen days in these
solitudes, where not a trace is to be seen of any inhabitant. The
night is passed in temporary huts made of the leaves of the heliconia,
brought on purpose. On the western slopes of the Andes marshes have to
be crossed, into which one sinks up to the knees; and the weather
having changed when we reached them, it rained in torrents for the
last few days. Our boots rotted on our feet, and we reached Carthago
with naked and bleeding feet, but enriched with a fine collection of
new plants.
"From Carthago we went to Popayan by way of Buga, crossing the fine
Cauca valley, and skirting along the mountain of Choca, with the
platina-mines for which it is famous.
"We spent October, 1801, at Popayan, whence we made excursions to the
basaltic mountains of Julusuito and the craters of the Puracé volcano,
which discharge hydro-sulphuric steam and porphyritic granite with a
terrible noise....
"The greatest difficulties were met with in going from Popayan to
Quito. We had to pass the Pasto Paramos, and that in the rainy season,
which had now set in. A 'paramo' in the Andes is a district some 1700
or 2000 fathoms high, where vegetation ceases, and the cold is
piercing.
"We went from Popayan to Almager and thence to Pasto, at the foot of a
terrible volcano, by way of the fearful precipices forming the ascent
to the summit of the Cordillera, thus avoiding the heat of the Patia
valley, where one night will often bring on the fever known as the
-Calentura de Patia-, lasting three or four months."
The province of Pasto consists entirely of a frozen plateau almost too
lofty for any vegetation to thrive on it, surrounded by volcanoes and
sulphur-mines from which spiral columns of smoke are perpetually
issuing. The inhabitants have no food but batatas, and when they run
short they are obliged to live upon a little tree called "achupalla,"
for which they have to contend with the bear of the Andes. After being
wet through night and day for two months, and being all but drowned in
a sudden flood, accompanied by an earthquake near the town of Jbarra,
Humboldt and Bonpland arrived on the 6th January, 1801, at Quito,
where they were received in cordial and princely style by the Marquis
of Selva-Alegre.
Quito is a fine town, but the intense cold and the barren mountains
surrounding it make it a gloomy place to stay in. Since the great
earthquake of the 4th February, 1797, the temperature has considerably
decreased, and Bouguer, who registered it at an average of from 15
degrees to 16 degrees would be surprised to find it varying from 4
degrees to 10 degrees Reaumur. Cotopaxi and Pinchincha, Antisana and
Illinaza, the various craters of one subterranean fire, were all
examined by the travellers, a fortnight being devoted to each.
Humboldt twice reached the edge of the Pinchincha crater, never before
seen except by Condamine.
"I made my first trip," he says, "accompanied only by an Indian.
Condamine had approached the crater by the lower part of its edge
which was covered with snow, and in this first attempt I followed his
example. But we nearly perished. The Indian sank to the breast in a
crevasse, and we found to our horror that we were walking on a bridge
of frozen snow, for a little in advance of us there were some holes
through which we could see the light. Without knowing it we were in
fact on the vaults belonging to the crater itself. Startled, but not
discouraged, I changed my plan. From the outer rim of the crater,
flung as it were upon the abyss, rise three peaks, three rocks, which
are not covered with snow, because the steam from the volcano prevents
the water from freezing. I climbed upon one of these rocks and on the
top of it found a stone attached on one side only to the rock and
undermined beneath, so as to protrude like a balcony over the
precipice. This stone was but about twelve feet long by six broad, and
is terribly shaken by the frequent earthquakes, of which we counted
eighteen in less than thirty minutes. To examine the depths of the
crater thoroughly we lay on our faces, and I do not think imagination
could conceive anything drearier, more gloomy, or more awful than what
we saw. The crater consists of a circular hole nearly a league in
circumference, the jagged edges of which are surrounded by snow. The
interior is of pitchy blackness, but so vast is the gulf that the
summits of several mountains situated in it can be made out at a depth
of some 300 fathoms, so only fancy where their bases must be!
"I have no doubt that the bottom of the crater must be on a level with
the town of Quito. Condamine found this volcano extinct and covered
with snow, but we had to take the bad news to the inhabitants of the
capital, that the neighbouring burning mountain is really active."
Humboldt ascended the volcano of Antisana to a height of 2773 fathoms,
but could go no further, as the cold was so intense that the blood
started from the lips, eyes, and gums of the travellers. It was
impossible to reach the crater of Cotopaxi.
On the 9th June, 1802, Humboldt, accompanied by Bonpland, started from
Quito to examine Chimborazo and Tungurunga. The peak of the latter
fell in during the earthquake of 1797, and Humboldt found its height
to be but 2531 fathoms, whilst in Condamine's time it was 2620 fathoms.
From Quito the travellers went to the Amazon by way of Lactacunga,
Ambato and Rio-Bamba situated in the province laid waste by the
earthquake of 1797, when 40,000 inhabitants were swallowed up by water
and mud. Going down the Andes, Humboldt and his companions had an
opportunity of admiring the remains of the Yega road, leading from
Cusco to Assuay, and known as the Inca's road. It was built entirely
of hewn stones, and was very straight. It might have been taken for
one of the best Roman roads. In the same neighbourhood are the ruins
of a palace of the Inca Fupayupangi, described by Condamine in the
minutes of the Berlin Academy.
After a stay of ten days at Cuença, Humboldt entered the province of
Jaen, surveyed the Marañon as far as the Rio Napo, and with the aid of
the astronomical observations he was able to make, supplemented
Condamine's map. On the 23rd October, 1802, Humboldt entered Lima,
where he successfully observed the transit of Mercury.
After spending a month in that capital he started for Guayaquil,
whence he went by sea to Acapulco in Spanish America.
The vast number of notes collected by Humboldt during the year he
spent in Mexico, and which led to the publication of his Essay on
Spanish America, would, after what we have said of his previous
proceedings, be enough to prove, if proof were needed, what a passion
he had for knowledge, how indomitable was his energy and how immense
his power of work.
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