Mungo Park left Koulikorro, where he had obtained food by writing
saphics or talismans for the natives, upon the 21st of August, and
reached Bammakoa, where a large salt-market is held. From an eminence
near the town he perceived a high mountain range in the kingdom of
Kong, whose ruler had a more numerous army than the King of Bambara.
Once more robbed by brigands of all he possessed, the unfortunate
traveller found himself, in the rainy season, alone in a vast desert,
five leagues from the nearest European settlement, and for the moment
gave way to despair. But his courage soon revived; and reaching the
town of Sibidoulou, his horse and clothes, which had been stolen from
him by Foulah robbers, were restored to him by the -mansa-, or chief.
Kamalia, or Karfa Taura advised him to await the cessation of the
rainy season, and then to proceed to Gambia with a caravan of slaves.
Worn out, destitute, attacked by fever, which for five months kept him
prostrate, Mungo Park had no choice but to remain in this place.
Upon the 19th of April the caravan set out. We can readily imagine the
joy experienced by Mungo Park when all was ready. Crossing the desert
of Jallonka, and passing first the principal branch of the Senegal
river, and then the Falemé, the caravan finally reached the shores of
the Gambia, and on the 12th of June, 1797, Mungo Park once more
arrived at Pisania, where he was warmly welcomed by Dr. Laidley, who
had despaired of ever seeing him again.
The traveller returned to England upon the 22nd of September. So great
was the impatience with which an account of his discoveries, certainly
the most important in this part of Africa, was awaited, that the
African Society allowed him to publish for his own profit an abridged
account of his adventures.
He had collected more facts as to the geography, manners, and customs
of the country than all preceding travellers; he had determined the
position of the sources of the Senegal and Gambia, and surveyed the
course of the Niger or Djoliba--which he proved to run eastwards,
whilst the Gambia flowed to the west.
Thus a point, which up to this time had been disputed by geographers,
was definitely settled. It was no longer possible to confound the
three rivers, as the French geographer Delisle had done, in 1707, when
he represented the Niger as running eastward from Bornu, and flowing
into the river Senegal on the west. He himself, however, had admitted
and corrected this error, in his later maps of 1722 and 1727, no doubt
on account of the facts ascertained by André Brue, governor of Senegal.
Houghton, indeed, had learned much from the natives of the course of
the Niger through the Mandingo country, and of the relative positions
of Sego, Djennéh, and Timbuctoo; but it was reserved for Mungo Park to
fix positively, from personal knowledge, the position of the two
first-named towns, and to furnish circumstantial details of the
country, and the tribes who inhabit it.
Public opinion was unanimous as to the importance of the great
traveller's exploration, and keenly appreciative of the courage, skill,
and honesty exhibited by him.
A short time later, the English government offered Mungo Park the
conduct of an expedition to the interior of Australia; but he refused
it.
In 1804, however, the African Society determined to complete the
survey of the Niger, and proposed to Mungo Park the command of a new
expedition for its exploration. This time the great traveller did not
refuse, and upon the 30th of January, 1805, he left England. Two
months later he landed at Goree.
He was accompanied by his brother-in-law, Anderson, a surgeon, by
George Scott, a draughtsman, and by thirty-five artillery-men. He was
authorized to enrol as many soldiers as he liked in his service, and
was provided with a credit of five hundred pounds.
"These resources," says Walcknaer, "so vast in comparison with those
furnished by the African Society, were, to our thinking, partly the
cause of his loss. The rapacious demands of the African kings grew in
proportion to the riches they supposed our traveller to possess; and
the effort to meet the enormous drain made upon him, was in great part
the cause of the catastrophe which brought the expedition to an end."
Four carpenters, one officer and thirty-five artillery-men, and a
Mandingo merchant named Isaac, who was to act as guide, with the
leaders of the expedition already mentioned, composed an imposing
caravan. Mungo Park left Cayee upon the 27th of April, 1805, and
reached Pisania the next day. From this place, ten years earlier, he
had started upon his first exploration. Taking an easterly direction,
he followed his former route as far as Bambaku, upon the shores of the
Niger. When he arrived at this place, the number of Europeans was
already reduced to six soldiers and a carpenter; the remainder had
succumbed to fatigue, or the fevers incidental to the inundations. The
exactions of the various petty chiefs through whose domains the
expedition passed had considerably diminished the stock of merchandise.
Mungo Park was now guilty of an act of grave imprudence. Remarking
that trade was very active at Sansanding, a town containing eleven
thousand inhabitants, and that beads, indigo, antimony, rings,
bracelets, and other articles not likely to be spoiled in the transit
to England, were freely exhibited for sale, "he opened," says
Walcknaer, "a large shop, which he stocked with European merchandise,
for sale wholesale and retail; and probably the large profits he made
excited the envy of the merchants. The natives of Djenneh, the Moors,
and merchants of Sansanding, joined with those of Sego in offering, in
the presence of Modibinne, to give the King of Mansong a larger and
more valuable quantity of merchandise than he had received from the
English traveller, if he would seize his baggage, and then kill him,
or send him out of Bambarra. But in spite of his knowledge of this
fact, Mungo Park still kept his shop open, and he received, as the
proceeds of one single day's business, 25,756 pieces of money, or
cowries."
Upon the 28th of October Anderson expired, after four months' illness,
and Mungo Park found himself once more alone in the heart of Africa.
The King of Mansong had accorded him permission to build a boat, which
would enable him to explore the Niger. Naming his craft the -Djoliba-,
he fixed upon the 16th of November for his departure.
Here his journal ends, with details on the riverside populations, and
on the geography of the countries he was the first to discover. This
journal, when it reached Europe, was published, imperfect as it was,
as soon as the sad fact was realized that the writer had perished in
the waters of the Djoliba. It contained in reality no new discovery,
but it was recognized as useful to geographical science. Mungo Park
had determined the astronomical position of the more important towns,
and thereby furnished material for a map of Senegambia. The perfecting
of this map was entrusted to Arrowsmith, who stated in an
advertisement, that, finding wide differences between the positions of
the towns as shown in the journal by each day's travel and that
furnished by the astronomical observations, it was impossible to
reconcile them; but that, in accordance with the latter, he had been
obliged to place the route followed by Mungo Park in his first voyage
farther north.
It was reserved for the Frenchman Walcknaer to discover a curious
discrepancy in Mungo Park's journal. This was a singular error upon
the part of the traveller, which neither the English editor nor the
French translator (whose work was badly performed) had discovered.
Mungo Park in his diary records events as happening upon the 31st of
April. As every one knows that that month has only thirty days, it
followed that during the course of his journey the traveller had made
a mistake of a whole day, reckoning in his calculations from the
evening instead of the morning. Hence important rectifications were
necessary in Arrowsmith's map; but none the less, when once Mungo
Park's error is recognized, it is evident that to him we owe the first
faithful map of Senegambia.
Although the facts that reached the English Government allowed no room
for doubt as to the fate of the traveller, a rumour that white men had
been seen in the interior of Africa induced the Governor of Senegal to
fit out an expedition. The command was entrusted to the negro merchant
Isaac, Mungo Park's guide, who had faithfully delivered the
traveller's journal to the English authorities. We need not linger
over the account of this expedition, but merely relate that which
concerns the last days of Mungo Park.
At Sansanding, Isaac encountered Amadi Fatouma, the native who was
with Park on the -Djoliba- when he perished, and from him he obtained
the following recital:--
"We embarked at Sansanding, and in two days reached Silla, the spot
where Mungo Park completed his first journey.
"After two days' navigation we reached Djenneh. In passing Dibby,
three boats, filled with negroes armed with lances and arrows, but
without fire-arms, approached us. We had passed successively Racbara
and Timbuctoo, when we were pursued by these boats, which we repulsed
with difficulty, and only after killing several natives. At Gourouma
we were attacked by seven boats, but succeeded in repulsing them.
Constant skirmishes ensued, with heavy loss to the blacks, until we
reached Kaffo, where we remained for a day. We then proceeded down the
river as far as Carmusse, and anchored off Gournou. Next day we
perceived a Moorish detachment, who allowed us to pass.
"We then entered the country of Houssa. Next day we reached Yaouri,
and sent Amadi Fatouma into the town, with presents for the chief and
to purchase food. The negro, before accepting the presents, enquired
if the white traveller intended to revisit his country. Mungo Park, to
whom the question was reported, replied that he should never return."
It is supposed that these words brought about his death. The negro
chief, once convinced that he should not see Mungo Park again,
determined to keep the presents intended for his king.
Meantime, Amadi Fatouma reached the king's residence, at some distance
from the river. The prince, warned of the presence of the white men,
sent an army next day to the small village of Boussa, on the river
side. When the -Djoliba- appeared it was assailed by a shower of
stones and arrows. Park threw his baggage into the river, and jumped
in with his companions. All perished.
Thus miserably died the first Englishman who had navigated the Djoliba
and visited Timbuctoo. Many efforts were made in the same direction,
but almost all were destined to fail.
At the end of the eighteenth century, two of Linnæus's best pupils
explored the south of Africa in the interests of natural history.
Sparrman undertook to search for animals, and Thunberg for plants. The
account of Sparrman's expedition, which, as we have said, was
interrupted by his voyage in Oceania, after Cook's expedition, was the
first to appear. It was translated into French by Le Tourneur. In his
preface, which is still allowed to stand, Le Tourneur deplored the
loss of the learned explorer, who he said had died during a voyage to
the Gold Coast. Just as the work was published, Sparrman reappeared,
to the great astonishment of Le Tourneur.
Sparrman had reached Africa upon the 30th of April, 1772, and landed
at the Cape of Good Hope. At this time the town was only two miles
across each way, including the gardens and plantations adjoining it on
one side. The streets were wide, planted with oaks, and the houses
were white, or, to Sparrman's surprise, painted green.
His object in visiting the Cape was to act as tutor to the children of
a M. Kerste; but upon his arrival in Cape Town, he found that his
employer was absent at his winter residence in False Bay. When the
spring came round, Sparrman accompanied Kerste to Alphen, a property
which he possessed near Constance. The naturalist availed himself of
the opportunity to make many excursions in the neighbourhood, and
attempt the somewhat dangerous ascent of the Table Mountain. By these
means he became acquainted with the manners and customs of the Boers,
and their treatment of their slaves. The violence of the latter was so
great that the inhabitants of the town were obliged to sleep with
locked doors, and provided with fire-arms close at hand.
Nearly all over the colony a rough hospitality ensured a certain
welcome for the traveller. Sparrman relates several curious
experiences of his own.
"I arrived one evening," he says, "at the dwelling of a farmer named
Van der Spooei, a widower, born in Africa, and father of the
proprietor of the Red Constance, or the Old Constance.
"Making believe not to see me approach, he remained stationary in the
entry of his house. As I approached him, he offered his hand, still
without attempting to come forward, and said, 'Good day! You are
welcome! How are you? -Who- are you? A glass of wine perhaps? or a
pipe? Will you partake of something?' I answered his questions
laconically, and accepted his offers in the same style as they were
offered. His daughter, a well-made girl of some fourteen or fifteen
years of age, brought in dinner, which consisted of a fine breast of
lamb, stewed with carrots. The meal over, she offered me tea so
pleasantly that I was quite puzzled whether to admire the dinner or my
charming hostess the most. Both father and daughter showed the
greatest kindness and good will. I spoke to my host several times, in
hopes of breaking his silence; but his replies were brief; and I
observed that he only once commenced a conversation himself, when he
pressed me to remain over night in his house. I bid him farewell,
deeply impressed with his hospitality."
Sparrman undertook several similar expeditions, among others, one to
Hout Bay and Paarl, in which he had frequent occasion to notice the
exaggerations to be met with in the narrative of Kolbe, his
predecessor.
He intended to continue his explorations during the winter, and
projected a journey into the interior, when the fine season should
return. When the frigates commanded by Captain Cook, the -Resolution-
and -Adventure-, arrived at the Cape, Forster invited the young
Swedish naturalist to accompany him; and Sparrman was thus enabled to
visit New Zealand, Van Diemen's Land, New Holland, Otaheite, Tierra
del Fuego, the Antarctic Regions, and New Georgia, before his return
to the Cape, where he landed on the 22nd of March, 1775.
His first care upon his return was to organize his expedition to the
interior; and in order to add to his available resources he practised
medicine and surgery during the winter. A cargo of corn, medicine,
knives, tinder-boxes, and spirits for the preservation of specimens
was collected, and packed in an immense waggon, drawn by five yoke of
oxen.
Sparrman says,--
"The conductor of this cart needs dexterity, not only in his
management of the animals, but in the use of the whip of African
drivers. These instruments are about fifteen feet long, with a thong
of the same or greater length, and a tongue of white leather almost
three feet long. The driver holds this formidable instrument in both
hands, and from his seat in front of the waggon can reach the foremost
oxen with it. He distributes his cuts unceasingly, well understanding
how and where to distribute them in such a manner that the hide of the
animals feels the whip."
Sparrman was to accompany the waggon on horseback, and was accompanied
by a young colonist, named Immelman, who wished to penetrate into the
interior for recreation. They started upon the 25th of July, 1775.
After passing Rent River, scaling the Hottentot Holland Kloof, and
crossing the Palmite, they entered a desert country, interspersed with
plains, mountains, and valleys, without water, but frequented by
antelopes of various kinds, with zebras and ostriches.
Sparrman soon reached the warm mineral baths at the foot of the
Zwartberg, which, at that time, were much frequented, the company
having built a house near the mountains. At this point the explorer
was joined by young Immelman, and together they started for Zwellendam,
which they reached upon the 2nd of September. We will give a few of
the facts they collected about the inhabitants.
The Hottentots are as tall as Europeans, their hands and feet are
small, and their colour a brownish yellow. They have not the thick
lips of the Kaffirs and natives of Mozambique. Their hair is black and
woolly, curly, but not thick. They rub the entire body with fat and
soot. A Hottentot who paints himself looks less naked, and more
complete, so to say, than one who only rubs himself with grease. Hence
the saying, "A Hottentot without paint, is like a shoe without
blacking."
[Illustration: A Hottentot. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
These natives usually wear a cloak called karos, made of sheep's skin,
with the wool turned inwards. The women arrange it with a long point,
which forms a sort of hood, in which they place their children. Both
men and women wear leather rings upon their arms and legs--a custom,
which gave rise to the fable that this race rolled puddings round
their limbs, to feed on from time to time. They also wear copper and
iron rings, but these ornaments are less common.
The kraal, or Hottentot village, is a collection of huts in a circle,
all very similar, and of the shape of beehives. The doors, which are
in the centre, are so low that they can only be entered on the knees.
The hearth is in the middle of the hut, and the roof has no hole for
the escape of the smoke.
The Hottentots must not be confounded with the Bushmen. The latter
live only for hunting and robbery; their skill in throwing poisoned
arrows, their courage, and the wildness of their lives, render them
invincible.
At Zwellendam, Sparrman saw the quagga, a species of horse, like a
zebra in shape, but with shorter ears.
The explorer next visited Mossel Bay, a harbour little used, as it is
too much exposed to the west winds; and thence he proceeded to the
country of the Houtniquas, or, as Burchell's map calls them, the
Antiniquas. This woody country appeared fertile, and the colonists
established there are prosperous. Sparrman met with most of the
quadrupeds of Africa in this district, such as elephants, leopards,
lions, tiger cats, hyenas, monkeys, hares, antelopes, and gazelles.
We will not attempt to follow Sparrman to all the small settlements he
visited. An enumeration of the streams, kraals, or villages he passed
would convey no information to the reader. Rather let us gather from
his narratives a few curious and novel details concerning two
creatures which he describes, the sheep of the Cape, and the
"honey-guide."
"When a sheep is to be killed," he says, "the very leanest of the
flock is selected. It would be impossible to use the others for food.
Their tails are of a triangular shape, and are often a foot and a half
long, and occasionally six inches thick in the upper part. One of
these tails will weigh eight or twelve pounds, and they consist
principally of delicate fat, which some persons eat with bread instead
of butter. It is used in the preparation of food, and sometimes to
make candles."
After describing the two-horned rhinoceros, hitherto unknown, the
gnu--an animal in form something between the horse and the ox--the
gazelle, the baboon, and the hippopotamus, the habits of which were
previously imperfectly known, Sparrman describes a curious bird, of
great service to the natives, which he calls the honey-guide.
"This bird," he says, "is remarkable neither in size nor colour. At
first sight it would be taken for a common sparrow, but it is a little
larger than that bird, of a somewhat lighter colour, with a small
yellow spot on each shoulder, and dashes of white in the wings and
tail.
"In its own interests, this bird leads the natives to the bees' nests,
for it is very fond of honey, and it knows that whenever a nest is
destroyed, a little honey will be spilled, or left behind, as a
recompense for its services.
"It seems to grow hungry in the morning and evening. In any case, it
is then that it leaves its nest, and by its piercing cries attracts
the attention of the Hottentots or the colonists. The cries are almost
always answered by the appearance of natives or settlers, when the
bird, repeating its call unceasingly, slowly flies from place to place
towards the spot where the bees have made their home. Arrived at the
nest, whether it be in the cleft of a rock, in a hollow tree, or in
some underground cavity, the guide hovers about it for a few seconds,
and then perches hard by, and remains a silent and hidden spectator of
the pillage, in which he hopes subsequently to have his share. Of this
phenomenon I have myself twice been a witness."
[Illustration: A Bosjeman. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
On the 12th of April, 1776, on his way back to the Cape, Sparrman
heard that a large lake, the only one in the colony, had been
discovered to the north of the Schneuwberg district. A little later,
the traveller got back to the Cape, and embarked for Europe with the
numerous natural history collections he had made.
About the same time, between 1772-1775, Thunberg, the Swede, whom
Sparrman had met at the Cape, made three successive journeys in the
interior of Africa. They were not, any more than Sparrman's, actual
journeys of discovery; and we owe the acquisition of no new
geographical fact to Thunberg. He did but make a vast number of
interesting observations on the birds of the Cape, and he also
ascertained a few interesting details respecting the various races of
the interior, which turned out to be far more fertile than was at
first supposed.
Thunberg was followed in the same latitudes by an English officer,
Lieutenant William Paterson, whose chief aim was to collect plants and
other objects of natural history. He penetrated a little further north
than the Orange River, and into Kaffraria a good deal further east
than Fish River. To him we owe the first notice of the giraffe; and
his narrative is rich in important observations on the natural history,
structure, and inhabitants of the country.
It is a curious fact that the Europeans attracted to South Africa by
zeal for geographical discovery, were far less numerous than those
whose motive was love of natural history. We have already mentioned
Sparrman, Thunberg, and Paterson. To this list we must now add the
name of the ornithologist Le Vaillant.
Born at Paramaribo, in Dutch Guiana, of French parents, who traded in
birds, Le Vaillant visited Europe with them as a mere child, and
traversed Holland, Germany, Lorraine, and the Vosges, on his way to
Paris. It will readily be understood that this wandering life awoke in
him a taste for travelling; and his passion for birds, early excited
by the examination of private and public collections, made him eager
to enrich science by descriptions and drawings of unknown species.
Now what country would afford the richest ornithological harvest? The
districts near the Cape had been explored by botanists, and by a
scientific man who had made quadrupeds his chief study; but no one had
as yet traversed them to collect birds.
Le Vaillant arrived at the Cape on the 29th of March, 1781, after the
loss of his vessel in an explosion, with nothing but the clothes he
wore, ten ducats, and his gun.
Others would have been disheartened, but Le Vaillant did not despair
of extricating himself from his painful position. Confident in his
skill with the gun and the bow, in his strength and agility, as well
as in his skill in preparing the skins of animals, and in stuffing
birds so that their plumage should retain all its original gloss, the
naturalist had soon opened relations with the wealthiest collectors of
the Cape.
One of these, an official named Boers, provided Le Vaillant with every
requisite for a successful journey, including carts, oxen, provisions,
objects for barter, and horses. Even servants and guides were
appointed, free of cost, to the explorer. The kind of researches to
which Le Vaillant intended to devote himself influenced his mode of
travelling. Instead of seeking frequented and beaten tracks, he tried
to avoid them, and to penetrate into districts neglected by Europeans,
hoping in them to meet with birds unknown to science. As a result he
may be said always to have taken nature by surprise, coming into
contact with natives whose manners had not yet been modified by
intercourse with whites; so that the information he gives us brings
savage life, as it really is, more vividly before us than anything
told us by his predecessors or successors. The only mistake made by Le
Vaillant was the entrusting of the translation of his notes to a young
man who modified them to suit his own notions. Far from taking the
scrupulous care to be exact which distinguishes modern editors, he
exaggerated facts; and, dwelling too much on the personal qualities of
the traveller, he gave to the narrative of the journey a boastful tone
very prejudicial to it.
After three months' stay at the Cape and in its neighbourhood, Le
Vaillant started, on the 18th December, 1781, for a first journey
eastwards, and in Kaffraria. His equipment this time consisted of
thirty oxen--ten for each of his two waggons, and ten as
reserve--three horses, nine dogs, and five Hottentots.
Le Vaillant first crossed the Dutch districts already explored by
Sparrman, where he met with vast herds of zebras, antelopes, and
ostriches, arriving in due course at Zwellendam, where he bought some
oxen, a cart, and a cock--the last serving as an alarm-clock
throughout the journey. Another animal was also of great use to him.
This was a monkey he had tamed, and promoted to the post, alike useful
and honourable, of taster--no one being allowed to touch any fruit or
root unknown to the Hottentots till Master Rees had given his verdict
upon it.
[Illustration: "Till Master Rees had given his verdict."]
Rees was also employed as a sentinel; and his senses, sharpened by use
and the struggle for life, exceeded in delicacy those of the most
subtle Redskin. He it was who warned the dogs of the approach of
danger. If a snake approached, or a troop of monkeys were disporting
themselves in a neighbouring thicket, Rees' terror and his shrieks
quickly revealed the presence of a disturbing element.
From Zwellendam, which he left on the 12th January, 1782, Le Vaillant
made his way eastwards, at some little distance from the sea. He
pitched his camp on the banks of the Columbia (Duywen Hock) river and
made many very successful hunting excursions in a district rich in
game, finally reaching Mossel Bay, where the howls of innumerable
hyenas frightened the oxen.
A little farther on he entered the country of the Houtniquas, a
Hottentot name signifying men filled with honey. Here not a step could
be taken without coming upon swarms of bees. Flowers sprang up beneath
the feet of the travellers; the air was heavy with their perfume;
their varied colours lent such enchantment to the scene that some of
the servants would have liked to halt. Le Vaillant however hastened to
press on. The whole of this district, down to the sea, is occupied by
colonists, who breed cattle, make butter, cultivate timber, and
collect honey, sending their merchandise to the Cape for sale.
A little beyond the last post of the company, Le Vaillant, having
entered a district peopled by thousands of "turacos," and other rare
birds, pitched his hunting camp; but his plans were terribly upset by
the continuous fall of heavy rains, the result of which was to reduce
the travellers to great straits for want of food.
After many a sudden change of fortune and many hunting adventures, an
account of which would be very amusing, though beyond the scope of our
narrative, Le Vaillant reached Mossel Bay. Here, with what delight we
can easily imagine, he found letters from France awaiting him. One
excursion after another was now made in various directions, until
Kaffraria was entered. It was difficult to open relations with its
people, who sedulously avoided the whites, having suffered the loss of
many men and much cattle at their hands. Moreover the Tamboukis had
taken advantage of their critical position to invade Kaffraria and
commit numerous depredations, whilst the Bosjemans hunted them down
unmercifully. Without fire-arms, and attacked on so many sides at once,
the Kaffirs were driven to hiding themselves, and were retiring
northwards.
[Illustration: A Kaffir woman. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
As matters stood it was useless to attempt to penetrate into the
mountainous districts of Kaffraria, and Le Vaillant retraced his steps.
He then visited the Schneuwberg mountains, the Karroo desert and the
shores of the Buffalo River, returning to the Cape on the 2nd April,
1783.
The results of this long campaign were important. Le Vaillant obtained
some decided information about the Gonaquas, a numerous race which
must not be confounded with the Hottentots properly so called, but are
probably the offspring of their intermarriage with the Kaffirs. With
regard to the Hottentots themselves, the information collected by Le
Vaillant agrees on almost every point with that obtained by Sparrman.
"The Kaffirs seen by Le Vaillant," says Walcknaer, "were most of them
taller than either the Hottentots or the Gonaquas. They have neither
the retiring jaws nor prominent cheek bones which are so repulsive in
the Hottentots, but are less noticeable in the Gonaquas, neither have
they the broad flat faces and thick lips of their neighbours the
negroes of Mozambique. Their faces, on the contrary, are round, their
noses fairly prominent, and their teeth the whitest and most regular
of any people in the world. Their complexion is of a clear dark brown;
and, but for this one characteristic, says Le Vaillant, any Kaffir
woman would be considered very pretty, even beside a European."
During Le Vaillant's sixteen months of absence, the aspect of the Cape
had completely changed. When the traveller left he admired the modest
bearing of the Dutch women; on his return he found them thinking only
of amusement and dress. Ostrich feathers were so much in vogue that
they had to be imported from Europe and Asia. All those brought by our
traveller were quickly bought up. The birds which he had sent to the
colony on every possible opportunity now amounted to one thousand and
twenty-four specimens; and Mr. Boers' house, where they were kept, was
converted into a regular natural history museum.
Le Vaillant's journey had been so successful that he could not but
wish to begin another. Although his friend Boers had returned to
Europe, he was able, with the aid of the many other friends he had
made, to collect the materials for a fresh trip. On the 15th June,
1783, he started at the head of a caravan numbering nineteen persons.
He also took thirteen dogs, one he- and two she-goats, three cows,
thirty-six draught and fourteen reserve oxen, with two for carrying
the baggage of the Hottentot servants.
We shall not, of course, follow the traveller in his hunting
excursions; all we need to know is that he succeeded in making a
collection of marvellous birds, that he introduced the first giraffe
to Europe, and that he traversed the whole of the vast space between
the tropic of Capricorn on the west and the 14th meridian on the east.
He returned to the Cape in 1784, he embarked for Europe, and arrived
at Paris early in January, 1785.
The first native people met with by Le Vaillant in his second voyage
were the Little Namaquas, a race but very little known, and who soon
died out--the more readily that they occupied a barren country,
subject to constant attacks from the Bosjemans. Although of fair
height, they are inferior in appearance to the Kaffirs and Namaquas,
to whose customs theirs bear a great resemblance.
The Caminouquas, or Comeinacquas, of whom Le Vaillant gives many
particulars, exceed them in height. He says,--
"They appear taller even than the Gonaquas, although possibly they are
not so in reality; but the illusion is sustained by their small bones,
delicate and emaciated appearance, and slender limbs. The long mantle
of light material which hangs from the shoulder to the ground adds to
their height. They look like drawn out men. Lighter in colour than the
Cape natives, they have better features than the other Hottentot
tribes, owing to the fact that their noses are less flat and their
cheek bones less prominent."
Of all the races visited by Le Vaillant, the most peculiar and most
ancient was that of the Houzonanas, a tribe which had not been met
with by any other northern traveller; but they appear identical with
the Bechuanas, although the part of the country assigned to them does
not coincide with that which they are known to have occupied for many
years.
"The Houzonanas," says the narrative, "are small in stature, the
tallest being scarcely five feet four in height. These small beings
are perfectly proportioned, and are surprisingly strong and active.
They have an imposing air of boldness." Le Vaillant considers them the
best endowed mentally, and the strongest physically, of all the savage
races he had met with. In face they resemble the Hottentots, but they
have rounder chins, and they are far less black. They have curly hair,
so short that Le Vaillant at first imagined it to be shaven.
One striking peculiarity of the Houzonanas is a large mass of flesh
upon the back of the women, which forms a natural saddle, and
oscillates strangely with every movement of the body. Le Vaillant
describes a woman whom he saw with her child about three years old,
who was perched upon his feet behind her, like a footman behind a
cabriolet.
We will pass over the traveller's description of the appearance and
customs of these various races, many of which are now extinct, or
incorporated in some more powerful tribe. Although by no means the
least curious portion of his narrative, the details are so exaggerated
that we prefer to omit them.
Upon the eastern coast of Africa, a Portuguese traveller, named
Fransisco José de Lacerda y Almeida, left Mozambique in 1797, to
explore the interior. The account of this expedition to a place which
has only lately been revisited, would be of great interest; but
unfortunately, so far as we know, his journal has not been published.
His name is often quoted by geographers, and they appear to know what
countries he visited; but in France, at least, no lengthened notice of
this geographer exists which would furnish the details of his
exploration. A very few words will convey all that we have been able
to collect of the history of a man who made most important discoveries,
and whose name has most unfairly been forgotten.
Lacerda, the date and place of whose birth are unknown, was an
engineer, and he was professionally engaged in settling the boundary
of the frontier between the Spanish and Portuguese possessions in
South America. Whilst thus employed, he collected a mass of
interesting particulars of the province of Mato Grosso, which are
given in the -Rivesta trimensal do Brazil-. We cannot tell what
circumstances led him, after this successful expedition, to the
Portuguese possessions in Africa; nor is it easy to imagine his motive
for crossing South Africa from the eastern shore to the kingdom of
Loanda. It is however certain that he left the well-known town of Teté
in 1797, in command of an important caravan bound for the States of
Cazembé.
This country was governed by a king as renowned for his benevolence
and humanity as for his bravery. He inhabited a town called Lunda,
which was two miles in extent, and situated upon the eastern shore of
the lake called Mofo. It would have been interesting to compare these
localities with those that we know of in the same parallels to-day;
but the lack of details obliges us to desist, merely observing that
the word Lunda was well-known to Portuguese travellers. As regards
Cazembé, there is no longer any question as to its position.
Well received by the king, Lacerda remained some twelve days with him,
and then proceeded upon his journey. Unfortunately, when a day or
two's march from Lunda he succumbed to fatigue and the unhealthiness
of the climate.
The native king collected the traveller's notes and journals, and
ordered them to be sent with his remains to Mozambique. But
unfortunately the caravan entrusted with these precious memorials was
attacked, and the remains of the unfortunate Lacerda were left in the
heart of Africa. His notes were brought to Europe by a nephew, who had
accompanied the expedition.
We now come to the account of the expeditions undertaken in the east
of Africa, foremost amongst which is that of the well-known traveller
Bruce. A Scotchman by birth, like so many other African explorers,
James Bruce was brought up for the bar; but the sedentary nature of
his occupation had little charm for him, and he embraced an
opportunity of entering commercial life. His wife died a few years
after their marriage, and Bruce started for Spain, where he employed
his leisure in studying Arabic monuments. He wished to publish a
detailed account of those in the Escorial, but the Spanish Government
refused him the necessary permission.
[Illustration: Portrait of James Bruce. (Fac-simile of early
engraving.)]
Returning to England, Bruce began to study Eastern languages, and more
especially the Ethiopian, which at that time was known only through
the imperfect works of Ludolf. One day Lord Halifax half jestingly
proposed to him an exploration of the sources of the Nile. Bruce
entered enthusiastically into the subject, and set to work to realize
it. He overcame every objection, conquered every difficulty, and in
June, 1768, left England for the shores of the Mediterranean. Bruce
hurriedly visited some of the islands of the Archipelago, Syria, and
Egypt. Leaving Djedda he proceeded to Mecca, Lobheia, and arrived at
Massowah upon the 19th September, 1769. He had taken care to obtain a
firman from the Sultan, and also letters from the Bey of Cairo, and
the Sheriff of Mecca. This was fortunate, for the Nawab, or governor
did all in his power to prevent his entering Abyssinia, and
endeavoured to make him pay heavily with presents. Abyssinia had been
explored by Portuguese Missionaries, thanks to whose zeal some
information about the country had been obtained, although far less
accurate in detail than that which we owe to Bruce. Although his
veracity has often been questioned, succeeding travellers have
confirmed his assertions.
From Massowah to Adowa the road rises gradually, and passes over the
mountains which separate Tigré from the shores of the Red Sea.
Adowa was not originally the capital of Tigré. A manufacture of a
coarse cotton cloth which circulates as current money in Abyssinia was
established there. The soil in the neighbourhood is deep enough for
the cultivation of corn.
"In these districts," says Bruce, "there are three harvests a year.
The first seeds are sown in July and August, when the rain flows
abundantly. In the same season they sow 'tocusso,' 'teff,' and barley.
About the 20th of November they reap the first barley, then the wheat,
and last of all the 'teff.' In some of these they sow immediately upon
the same ground without any manure, barley, which they reap in
February, and then often sow 'teff,' but more frequently a kind of
vetch or pea, called Shimbra; these are cut down before the first
rains, which are in April; yet with all the advantages of a triple
harvest, which requires neither manure nor any expensive processes,
the farmer in Abyssinia is always very poor."
At Fremona, not far from Adowa, are the ruins of a Jesuit convent,
resembling rather a fort than the abode of men of peace. Two days'
journey further on, one comes to the ruins of Axum, the ancient
capital of Abyssinia. "In one square," says Bruce, "which I apprehend
to have been the centre of the town, there are forty obelisks, none of
which have any hieroglyphics on them. The two first have fallen down,
but a third a little smaller than them is still standing. They are all
hewn from one block of granite, and on the top of that which is
standing there is a -patera-, exceedingly well engraved in the Greek
style.
"After passing the convent of Abba Pantaleon, called in Abyssinia
Mantillas, and the small obelisk on a rock above, we follow a path cut
in a mountain of very red marble, having on the left a marble wall
forming a parapet about five feet high. At intervals solid pedestals
rise from this wall, bearing every token of having served to support
colossal statues of Sirius, the barking Anubis, or the Dog star. One
hundred and thirty-three of these pedestals with the marks just
mentioned are still in their places, but only two figures of the dog
were recognizable when I was there; these, however, though much
mutilated, were evidently Egyptian.
"There are also pedestals supporting the figures of the Sphinx. Two
magnificent flights of steps, several hundred feet long, all of
granite, exceedingly well finished, and still in their places, are the
only remains of a magnificent temple. In an angle of this platform
where the temple stood, is the present small church of Axum. This
church is a mean, small building, very ill kept and full of pigeons'
dung." It was near Axum that Bruce saw three soldiers cut from a
living cow a steak for their midday meal.
In his account of their method of cutting the steak Bruce says, "The
skin which had covered the flesh that was cut away was left intact,
and was fastened to the corresponding part by little wooden skewers
serving as pins. Whether they put anything between the skin and the
wounded flesh I do not know, but they soon covered the wound with mud.
They then forced the animal to rise, and drove it on before them, to
furnish them, no doubt, with another meal when they should join their
companions in the evening."
From Tigré, Bruce passed into the province of Siré, which derives its
name from its capital, a town considerably larger than Axum, but
constantly a prey to putrid fevers. Near it flows the Takazzé, the
ancient Siris, with its poisonous waters bordered by majestic trees.
In the province of Samen, situated amongst the unhealthy and broiling
Waldubba Mountains, and where many monks had retired to pray and do
penance, Bruce stayed only long enough to rest his beasts of burden,
for the country was not only haunted by lions and hyenas, and infested
by large black ants, which destroyed part of his baggage, but also
torn with civil war; so that foreigners were anything but safe. This
made him most anxious to reach Gondar, but when he arrived typhoid
fever was raging fiercely. His knowledge of medicine was very useful
to him, and procured him a situation under the governor, which was
most advantageous to him, as it rendered him free to scour the country
in all directions, at the head of a body of soldiers. By these means
he acquired a mass of valuable information upon the government,
manners, and customs of the country, and the chief events of its
history, which combined to make his work the most important hitherto
published about Abyssinia.
It was in the course of one of these excursions that Bruce discovered
the sources of the Blue Nile, which he took to be the true Nile.
Arrived at the church of St. Michael, at Geesh, where the river is
only four paces wide, and some four inches deep, Bruce became
convinced that its sources must be in the neighbourhood, although his
guide assured him that he must cross a mountain before he found them.
The traveller was not to be deceived.
"'Come! come!'" said Bruce, "'no more words. It is already late; lead
me to Geesh and the sources of the Nile, and show me the mountain that
separates us from it.' He then made me go round to the south of the
church, and coming out of the grove of cedars surrounding it, 'This is
the mountain,' he said, looking maliciously up into my face, 'that
when you were on the other side of it, was between you and the
fountains of the Nile; there is no other. Look at that green hillock
in the centre of that marsh. It is there that the two fountains of the
Nile are to be found. Geesh is at the top of the rock, where you see
those very green trees. If you go to the fountains, pull off your
shoes as you did the other day, for these people are all Pagans, and
they believe in nothing that you believe, but only in the Nile, to
which they pray every day as if it were God, as you perhaps invoke it
yourself.' I took off my shoes, and rushed down the hill towards the
little green island, which was about two hundred yards distant. The
whole of the side of the hill was carpeted with flowers, the large
roots of which protruded above the surface of the ground; and as I was
looking down, and noticing that the skin was peeling off the bulbs, I
had two very severe falls before I reached the edge of the marsh; but
at last I approached the island with its green sod. It was in the form
of an altar, and apparently of artificial construction. I was in
rapture as I gazed upon the principal fountain which rises in the
middle of it. It is easier to imagine than to describe what I felt at
that moment, standing opposite the sources which had baffled the
genius and courage of the most celebrated men for three thousand
years."
Bruce's narrative contains many other curious observations, but we
must now pass on to his account of Lake Tzana.
"Lake Tzana," according to his narrative, "is by far the largest sheet
of water known in these regions. Its extent, however, has been greatly
exaggerated. Its greatest breadth from Dingleber to Lamgue, i.e. from
east to west, is thirty-five miles, but it decreases greatly at each
end, and in some parts is not above ten miles broad. Its greatest
length is forty-nine miles from north to south, measured from Bab-Baha
to a point a trifle to the S.W.¼W. of the spot where the Nile, after
flowing through the lake with an ever perceptible current, bends
towards Dara in the Allata territory. In the dry season, from October
to March, the lake decreases greatly; but when the rains have swollen
the rivers, which unite at this place like the spokes of a wheel at
the nave, the lake rises, and overflows a portion of the plain. If the
Abyssinians, great liars at all times, are to be believed, there are
forty-five islands in Lake Tzana; but this number may be safely
reduced to eleven. The largest is named Dek, Daka, or Daga; the next
in size are Halimoon, on the Gondar side of the lake, Briguida, on the
Gorgora side, and Galila, beyond Briguida. All these islands were
formerly used as prisons for Abyssinian chieftains, or as retreats by
such as were dissatisfied at court, or wished to secure their
valuables in troubled times."
And now having visited Abyssinia with Bruce, let us return to the
north.
Some light was now being thrown upon the ancient civilization of Egypt.
The archæological expedition of Pococke, Norden, Niebuhr, Volney, and
Savary had been published in succession, and the Egyptian Society was
at work upon the publication of its large and magnificent work. The
number of travellers increased daily, and amongst others W. G. Browne
determined to visit the land of the Pharaohs.
From his work we learn much alike of the monuments and ruins which
make this country so interesting, and of the customs of its
inhabitants. The portion of the work relating to Darfur is entirely
new, no Europeans having previously explored it. Browne attained a
high place among travellers by his discovery that the Bahr-el-Abiad is
the true Nile, and because he endeavoured not indeed to discover its
source, that he could scarcely hope to do, but to ascertain its
latitude and course.
Arriving in Egypt upon the 10th of January, 1792, Browne set out upon
his first expedition to Siwâh, and discovered, as Horneman did later,
the oasis of Jupiter Ammon. He had little more opportunity than his
successor for exploring the catacombs and ruins, where he saw many
skulls and human remains.
"The ruins of Siwâh," he says, "resembled too much those of Upper
Egypt to leave any doubt that the buildings to which they belonged
were built by the same race of men. The figures of Isis and Anubis are
easily recognizable on them, and the proportions of their
architectural works, though smaller, are the same as those of the
Egyptian temples.
"The rocks I noticed in the neighbourhood of Siwâh were of the
sandstone formation, bearing no relation whatever to the stones of
these ruins; so that I should think that the materials for these
buildings cannot have been obtained on the spot. The people of Siwâh
have preserved no credible traditions respecting these objects. They
merely imagined them to contain treasures, and to be frequented by
demons."
After leaving Siwâh, Browne made various excursions in Egypt, and then
settled in Cairo, where he studied Arabic. He left this town upon the
10th of September, 1792, and visited in succession Kaw, Achmin, Gergeh,
Dendera, Kazr, Thebes, Assoûan, Kosseir, Memphis, Suez, and Mount
Sinai; then wishing to enter Abyssinia, but convinced that he could
not do so by way of Massowah, he left Assiût for Darfur, with a Soudan
caravan, in May, 1793. The caravan halted upon its way to Darfur at
the different towns of Ainé, Dizeh, Charyeh, Bulak, Scheb, Selinceh,
Leghéa, and Ber-el-Malha.
Being taken ill at Soueini, Browne was detained there, and only
reached El-Fascher after a long delay. Here his annoyances and the
exactions levied recommenced, and he could not succeed in obtaining an
interview with the Sultan. He was forced to spend the winter at Cobbeh,
awaiting his restoration to health, which only took place in the
summer of 1794. This time of forced inaction was not, however, wasted
by the traveller; he acquainted himself with the manners and dialects
of Darfur. Upon the return of summer, Browne repaired to El-Fascher,
and recommenced his applications for admittance to the Sultan. They
were attended with the same unsuccessful results, until a crowning act
of injustice at length procured for him the interview he had so long
solicited in vain.
"I found," he says, "the monarch Abd-el-Raschman seated on his throne
under a lofty wooden canopy, of Syrian and Indian stuffs
indiscriminately mixed. The floor in front of the throne was spread
with small Turkey carpets. The meleks (officers of the court) were
seated at some little distance off on the right and left, and behind
them stood a line of guards, wearing caps ornamented in front with a
small copper plate and a black ostrich feather. Each bore a spear in
his right hand, and a shield of hippopotamus-hide on the left arm.
Their only clothing was a cotton shirt, of the manufacture of the
country. Behind the throne were fourteen or fifteen eunuchs, clothed
in rich stuffs of various kinds and all manner of colours. The space
in front was filled with petitioners and spectators, to the number of
more than fifteen hundred. A kind of hired eulogist stood on the
monarch's left hand, crying out at the top of his voice during the
whole ceremony, 'See the buffalo, the son of a buffalo, the powerful
Sultan Abd-el-Raschman El-rashid. May God protect thy life, O master,
may God assist thee and render thee victorious.'"
[Illustration: "I found the monarch seated on his throne."]
The Sultan promised justice to Browne, and put the matter into the
hands of the meleks, but he only obtained restitution of a sixth of
that of which he had been robbed.
The traveller had merely entered Darfur to cross it. He found it would
be no easy task to leave it, and that in any case he must give up the
idea of prosecuting his exploration; he says,--
"On the 11th of December, 1795, (after a delay of three months) I
accompanied the chatib (one of the principal officers of the country)
to the monarch's presence. I shortly stated what I required, and the
chatib seconded me, though not with the zeal that I might have wished.
To my demand for permission to travel no answer was returned, and the
iniquitous despot, who had received from me no less than the value of
about 750 piastres in goods, condescended to give me twenty meagre
oxen, worth about 120 piastres. The state of my purse would not permit
me to refuse even this mean return, and I bade adieu to El-Fascher as
I hoped for ever."
Browne was not able to leave Darfur till the spring of 1796, when he
joined the caravan which was about to return to Egypt.
The town of Cobbeh, although not the resort of the merchants, must be
considered the capital of Darfur. It is more than two miles in length,
but is extremely narrow, each house stands in a field surrounded by a
palisade, and between each there is a plot of fallow land.
The plain in which the town is situated runs W.S.W., to a distance of
some twenty miles. Almost all the inhabitants are merchants, who trade
with Egypt. Their number may be estimated at six thousand, the larger
proportion being slaves. The entire population of Darfur cannot exceed
two hundred thousand, but Browne only arrived at this calculation by
estimating the number of recruits raised for the war with Kordofan.
"The inhabitants of Darfur," says the narrative, "are of various races.
Some, chiefly fakeers or priests and traders, come from the west, and
there are a good many Arabs, none of whom are permanent residents.
They are of various tribes; the greater number lead a wandering life
on the frontiers, where they pasture their camels, oxen, and horses.
They are not in such complete dependence on the Sultan as always to
contribute to his forces in war, or to pay him tribute in time of
peace."
After the Arabs come the people of Zeghawa, which once formed a
distinct kingdom, whose chief could put a thousand horsemen in the
field. The Zeghawas speak a different dialect from the people of Für.
We must also include the people of Bego or Dageou, who are now subject
to Darfur, but are the issue of a tribe which formerly ruled the
country.
The natives of Darfur are inured to hunger and thirst, but they
indulge freely in an intoxicating liquor called -Bouzza- or -Merissé-.
Thieving, lying, and dishonesty, with their accompanying vices,
prevail largely among them.
"In buying and selling the parent glories in deceiving the son, and
the son the parent, and atrocious frauds are committed in the name of
God and of the Prophet.
"Polygamy, which it is well known is tolerated by their religion, is
indulged in to excess by the people of Darfur. When Sultan Teraub went
to war with Korodofan, he took in his retinue five hundred women,
leaving as many in his palace. This may at first sight seem ridiculous,
but it must be remembered that these women had to grind corn, draw
water, dress food, and perform all the domestic work for a large
number of people, so that there was plenty for them to do."
Browne's narrative contains many medical observations of interest, and
gives valuable advice as to the mode of travelling in Africa, with
particulars of the animals, fish, metals, and plants of Darfur. We do
not give them here, because they do not contain anything of special
interest for us.
CHAPTER III.
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