Magellan having now been crossed from end to end, and a survey made of
the whole of the eastern portion of Tierra del Fuego, thus bridging
over an important gulf in hydrographic knowledge, no detailed map of
this coast having previously been made, the vessels steered for the
Polar regions, doubling Staten Island without difficulty, and on the
15th January coming in sight of the first ice, an event causing no
little emotion, for now was to begin the really hard work of the
voyage.
Floating ice was not the only danger to be encountered in these
latitudes: a dense fog, which the keenest sight could not penetrate,
soon gathered about the vessels, paralyzing their movements, and though
they were under a foresail only, rendering a collision with the
ice-masses imminent. The temperature fell rapidly, and the
thermometrograph marked only two degrees on the surface of the sea,
whilst the deep water was below zero. Half-melted snow now began to
fall, and everything bore witness that the Antarctic regions were
indeed entered.
Clarence, New South Orkney Islands, could not be identified. Every
one's attention had to be concentrated on avoiding blocks of ice. At
midday on the 20th January the vessels were in S. lat. 62 degrees 3
minutes and W. long. 49 degrees 56 minutes, not far from the place were
Powell encountered compact ice-fields, and an immense ice-island was
soon sighted, some 6000 feet in extent and 300 in height, with
perpendicular sides greatly resembling land under certain conditions of
the light. Numerous whales and penguins were now seen swimming about
the vessels, whilst white petrels continually flew across them. On the
21st observations gave S. lat. 62 degrees 53 minutes, and D'Urville was
expecting soon to reach the 65th parallel, when at three a.m. he was
told that further progress was arrested by an iceberg, across which it
did not seem possible to cut a passage. The vessels were at once put
about and slowly steered in an easterly direction, the wind having
fallen.
"We were thus enabled," says D'Urville, "to gaze at our leisure upon
the wonderful spectacle spread out before our eyes. Severe and grand
beyond expression it not only excited the imagination but filled the
heart with involuntary terror, nowhere else is man's powerlessness more
forcibly brought before him.... A new world displays itself to him, but
it is a motionless, gloomy, and silent world, where everything
threatens the annihilation of human faculties. Should he have the
misfortune to be left here alone, no help, no consolation, no spark of
hope, would soothe his last moments. One is involuntarily reminded of
the famous inscription on the gate of the Inferno of Dante--
"'Lasciate ogni speranza, voi ch' entrate.'"
D'Urville now set to work on a very strange task, which, as compared
with others of a similar kind, was likely to be of considerable value.
He had an exact measurement taken of the outlines of the iceberg. Had
other navigators done the same we should have had some precise
information as to the direction taken by icebergs, their movements,
&c., in the southern Polar regions, a subject still wrapped in the
greatest obscurity.
On the 22nd, after doubling a point, it was ascertained that the
iceberg was bearing S.S.W. by W. A lofty and broken piece of land was
sighted in these latitudes. Dumoulin had begun to survey it, and
D'Urville was about, as he thought, to identify it with the New South
Greenland of Morrell, when its outlines became dim and it sunk beneath
the horizon. On the 24th the two corvettes crossed a series of floating
islets, and entered a plain where the ice was melting. The passage,
however, became narrower and narrower, and they were obliged to veer
round, to save themselves from being blocked in.
Everything pointed to the conclusion that the edge of the ice was
melting, the ice-islands fell apart with loud reports, the ice running
off in little rivulets: there was undoubtedly a thaw, and Fanning had
been right in saying that these latitudes should not be visited before
February.
D'Urville now decided to steer for the north, and try to reach the
islands of New South Orkney, the map of which had not yet been
accurately laid down. The commander was anxious to survey that
archipelago thoroughly, and to spend several days there before resuming
his southerly course, so as to be in the Antarctic regions at the same
time of year as Weddell.
For three days the explorer coasted along the southern shores of New
South Orkney without being able to land; he then once more turned
southwards, and came in sight of the ice again in S. lat. 62 degrees 20
minutes and W. long. 39 degrees 28 minutes.
A few minutes before midday a kind of opening was discovered, through
which the vessels were forced at all risks. This bold manoeuvre was
successful, and in spite of the heavy snow, the explorers penetrated
into a small basin scarcely two miles in extent and hemmed in on every
side by lofty walls of ice. It was decided to make fast to the ice, and
when the order to cast anchor was given a young middy on board the
-Zelée- cried naively, "Is there a port here? I shouldn't have thought
there were people living on the ice."
Great indeed was now the joyful enthusiasm on both vessels. Some of the
young officers of the -Zelée- had come to empty a bowl of punch with
their comrades of the -Astrolabe-, and the commander could hear their
shouts of delight from his bed. He himself did not, however, look upon
the situation in quite the same favourable light. He felt that he had
done a very imprudent thing. Shut into a -cul-de-sac-, he could only go
out as he had come, and that he could not do until he had the wind
right aft. At eleven o'clock D'Urville was awoke by a violent shock,
accompanied by a noise of breaking, as if the vessel had struck on some
rocks. He got up, and saw that the -Astrolabe-, having drifted, had
struck violently against the ice, where she remained exposed to
collision with the masses of ice which the current was sweeping along
more rapidly than it did the vessel herself.
When day dawned the adventurers found themselves surrounded by ice, but
in the north a blackish blue line seemed to betray the existence of an
open sea. This direction was at once taken, but a thick fog immediately
and completely enveloped both ships, and when it cleared off they found
themselves face to face with a compact ice barrier, beyond which
stretched away as far as the eye could reach AN OPEN SEA!
D'Urville now resolved to cut himself a passage, and began operations
by dashing the -Astrolabe- with all possible speed against the
obstacle. The vessel penetrated two or three lengths into the ice, and
then remained motionless. The crew climbed out of her on to the ice
armed with pickaxes, pincers, mattocks, and saws, and merrily
endeavoured to cut a passage. The fragment of ice was already nearly
crossed when the wind changed, and the motion of the waves in the
offing began to be felt, causing the officers to agree in urging a
retreat into the shelter of the ice-walls, for there was some danger if
the wind freshened of the vessel being embayed against the ice and
beaten to pieces by the waves and floating -débris-.
The corvettes had traversed twelve or fifteen miles for nothing, when
an officer, perched in the shrouds, sighted a passage in the E.N.E.
That direction was at once taken, but again it was found impossible to
cut a passage, and when night came the crew had to make the ship fast
to a huge block of ice. The loud cracking noises which had awoke the
commander the night before now began with such violence that it really
seemed impossible for the vessel to live till daylight.
After an interview with the captain of the -Zelée-, however, D'Urville
made for the north, but the day passed without any change being
effected in the position of the vessels, and the next day during a
storm of sleet the swell of the sea became so powerful as completely to
raise the ice plain in which they were imprisoned.
More careful watch than ever had now to be kept, to guard against the
pieces of ice flung long distances by this motion, and the rudder had
to be protected from them by a kind of wooden hut.
[Illustration: "The rudder had to be protected."]
With the exception of a few cases of ophthalmia, resulting from the
continual glare of the snow, the health of the crews was satisfactory,
and this was no little satisfaction to the leaders of the expedition,
compelled as they were to be continually on the -qui-vive-. Not until
the 9th February were the vessels, favoured by a strong breeze, able to
get off, and once more enter a really open sea. The ice had been
coasted for a distance of 225 leagues. The vessels had actually
sustained no further damage than the loss of a few spars and a
considerable portion of the copper sheathing, involving no further
leakage than there had been before.
The next day the sun came out, and observations could be taken, giving
the latitude as 62 degrees 9 minutes S., and the longitude 39 degrees
22 minutes W.
Snow continued to fall, the cold was intense, and the wind very violent
for the three succeeding days. This continuance of bad weather,
together with the increasing length of the nights, warned D'Urville of
the necessity of giving up all idea of going further. When, therefore,
he found himself in S. lat. 62 degrees and W. long. 33 degrees 11
minutes, in other words in that part of the ocean where Weddell had
been able to sail freely in 1823, and the new explorer had met with
nothing but impassable ice, he steered for New South Orkney. A whole
month passed amongst the ice and fogs of the Antarctic Ocean had told
upon the health of the crews, and nothing could be gained for science
by a continuance of the cruise.
On the 20th the archipelago was again sighted, and D'Urville was once
more driven out of his course in a northerly direction by the ice, but
he was able to put off with two boats, the crews of which collected on
Weddell Island a large number of geological specimens, lichens, &c.,
and some twenty penguins and chionis.
On the 25th February Clarence Island was seen, forming the eastern
extremity of the New South Shetland Archipelago, a very steep and
rugged district covered with snow except on the beach, and thence the
explorers steered towards Elephant Island, resembling Clarence Island
in every respect, except that it is strewn with peaks rising up black
against the plains of snow and ice. The islets of Narrow, Biggs,
O'Brien, and Aspland were successively identified, but covered as they
are with snow they are perfectly inaccessible to man. The little
volcano of Bridgeman was also seen, and the naturalists tried in vain
to land upon it from two boats.
"The general colour of the soil," says the narrative, "is red, like
that of burnt brick with particles of grey, suggestive of the presence
of pumice-stone, or of calcined cinders. Here and there on the beach
are seen great blackish-looking blocks, which are probably lava. This
islet has, however, only one true crater, although thick columns of
smoke are emitted from it, nearly all of them issuing from the base on
the western side, whilst in the north are two other fumerolles, thirty
or forty feet along the water. There are none on the eastern or
northern side, or at the top, which is smooth and round. The bulk
appears recently to have undergone some considerable modification, as
indeed it must have done, or it could not now resemble so little the
description given by Powell in December, 1822."
D'Urville soon resumed his southerly route, and on the 27th February
sighted a considerable belt of land in the south-east on which he was
prevented from landing by the fog and the continuous fall of very fine
snow. He was now in the latitude of Hope Island--i.e. in S. lat. 62
degrees 57 minutes. He approached it very closely, and sighted before
reaching it a low-lying land, to which he gave the name of Joinville.
Then further on in the south-west he came to an extensive district
which he named Louis Philippe, and between the two in a kind of
channel, encumbered with ice, an island he called Rosamel.
"Now," says D'Urville, "the horizon was so light that we could trace
all the irregularities of Louis Philippe's Land. We could see it
stretching away from Mount Bransfield in the north (62 degrees W.
long.) to the S.S.W., where it faded away on the horizon. From Mount
Bransfield to the south it is lofty, and of fairly uniform surface,
resembling a vast, unbroken ice-field. In the south, however, it rises
in the form of a fine peak (Mount Jacquinot), which is equal perhaps,
indeed superior, to Bransfield; but beyond this peak it stretches away
in the form of a mountain chain, ending in the south-west in a peak
loftier than any of the others. For the rest, the effect of the snow
and ice, together with the absence of any objects with which they can
be compared, aid in exaggerating the height of all irregularities, and,
as a matter of fact, the results of the measurements taken by M.
Dumoulin showed all these mountains, which then appeared to us gigantic
and equal to the Alps and Pyrenees at least, to be after all of very
medium size. Mount Bransfield, for instance, was not more than about
2068 feet high, Mount Jacquinot 2121 feet, and Mount d'Urville, the
loftiest of them all, about 3047 feet. Except for the islets grouped
about the mainland, and a few peaks rising above the snow, the whole
country is one long series of compact blocks of ice, and it is
impossible to do more than trace the outlines of this ice-crust, those
of the land itself being quite indistinguishable."
On the 1st March soundings gave only eighty fathoms with a bottom of
rock and gravel. The temperature is 1 degree 9 on the surface, and 0
degree 2 at the bottom of the sea. On the 2nd of March, off Louis
Philippe's Land, an island was sighted which was named Astrolabe, and
the day after a large bay, or rather strait, to which the name of
Orleans Channel was given was surveyed between Louis Philippe's Land,
and a lofty, rocky belt, which D'Urville took for the beginning of
Trinity Land, hitherto very inaccurately laid down.
From the 26th February then to the 5th March D'Urville remained in
sight of the coast, skirting along it a little distance off, but unable
entirely to regulate his course on account of the incessant fogs and
rain. Everything bore witness to the setting in of a very decided thaw;
the temperature rising at midday to five degrees above zero, whilst the
ice was everywhere melting and running off in little streams of water,
or falling with a formidable crush into the sea in the form of blocks,
the wind meanwhile blowing strongly from the west.
All this decided D'Urville against the further prosecution of this
voyage. The sea was heavy, the rain and fog incessant. It was therefore
necessary to leave this dangerous coast, and make for the north, where
on the following day he surveyed the most westerly islands of the New
Shetland group.
D'Urville next steered for Conception, and very arduous was the voyage
there, for, in spite of every precaution, the crews of both corvettes,
especially that of the -Zelée-, were attacked with scurvy. It was now
that D'Urville measured the heights of some of the waves, with a view
to the disproving of the charge of exaggeration which had been brought
against him when he had estimated those he had seen break over Needle
Bank at a height of between eighty and a hundred feet.
With the help of some of his officers, that there might be no doubt as
to his accuracy, D'Urville measured some waves of which the vertical
height was thirty-five feet, and which measured not less than 196-1/2
feet from the crest to the lowest point, making a total length of 393
feet for a single wave. These measurements were an answer to the
ironical assertion of Arago, who, settling the matter in his own study,
would not allow that a wave could exceed from five to six feet in
height. One need not hesitate a single moment to accept, as against the
eminent but impulsive physicist, the measurements of the navigators who
had made observations upon the spot.
On the 7th April, 1838, the expedition cast anchor in Talcahuano Bay,
where the rest so sorely needed by the forty scrofulous patients of the
-Zelée- was obtained. Thence D'Urville made for Valparaiso, after
which, having entirely crossed Oceania, he cast anchor on the 1st
January, 1839, off Guam, arrived at Batina in October, and went thence
to Hobart's Town, whence, on the 1st January, 1840, he started on a new
trip in the Antarctic regions.
At this time D'Urville knew nothing either of Balleny's voyage, or of
the discovery of Sabrina's Land. He merely intended to go round the
southern extremity of Tasmania with a view to ascertaining beneath
which parallel he would meet with ice. He was under the impression that
the space between 120 degrees and 160 degrees E. long. had not yet been
explored, so that there was still a discovery to be made.
At first navigation was beset with the greatest difficulties. The swell
was very strong, the currents bore in an easterly direction, the
sanitary condition of the crews was far from satisfactory, and 58
degrees S. lat. had not yet been reached when the presence of ice was
ascertained.
The cold soon became very intense, the wind veered round to the W.N.W.,
and the sea became calm, a sure indication of the neighbourhood of land
or of ice. The former was the more generally received hypothesis, for
the ice-islands passed were too large to have been formed in the open
ocean. On the 18th January, S. lat. 64 degrees was reached, and great
perpendicular blocks of ice were met with, the height of which varied
from ninety to 100 feet, whilst the breadth exceeded 3000.
The next day, January 19th, 1840, a new land was sighted, to which the
name of Adélie was given. The sun was now burning hot, and the ice all
seemed to be melting, immense streams running down from the summits of
the rocks into the sea. The appearance of the land was monotonous,
covered as it was with snow. It ran from west to east, and seemed to
slope gradually down to the sea. On the 21st the wind allowed the
vessels to approach the beach, and deep ravines were soon made out,
evidently the result of the action of melted snow.
[Illustration: View of Adélie Land. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
[Illustration: Reduced Map of D'Urville's discoveries in the Antarctic
regions.]
As the ships advanced navigation became more and more perilous, for the
ice-islands were so numerous that there was hardly a large enough
channel between them for any manoeuvring.
"Their straight walls," says D'Urville, "rose far above our masts,
glowering down upon our vessels, which appeared of absurdly small
dimensions, as compared with their huge masses. The spectacle spread
out before us was alike grand and terrible. One might have fancied
oneself in the narrow streets of a city of giants."
[Illustration: "Their straight walls rose far above our masts."]
The corvettes soon entered a huge basin, formed by the coast and the
ice-islands which had just been passed. The land stretched away in the
south-east and north-west as far as the eye could reach. It was between
three and four thousand feet high, but nowhere presented any very
salient features. In the centre of the vast snow plain rose a few
rocks. The two captains at once sent off boats with orders to bring
back specimens which should testify to the discovery made. We quote
from the account of Du Bouzet, one of the officers told off on this
important survey.
"It was nearly nine o'clock when to our great delight we landed on the
western side of the most westerly and loftiest islet. The -Astrolabe-
boat had arrived one moment before ours, and its crew were already
clambering up the steep sides of the rock, flinging down the penguins
as they went, the birds showing no small surprise at being thus
summarily dispossessed of the island, of which they had been hitherto
the only inhabitants. I at once sent one of our sailors to unfurl a
tricolour flag on these territories, which no human creature had seen
or trod before ourselves. According to the old custom--to which the
English have clung tenaciously--we took possession of them in the name
of France, together with the neighbouring coast, which we were
prevented from visiting by the ice. The only representatives of the
animal kingdom were the penguins, for in spite of all our researches we
did not find a single shell. The rocks were quite bare, without so much
as the slightest sign of a lichen. We had to fall back on the mineral
kingdom. We each took a hammer and began chipping at the rock, but, it
being of granite, was so extremely hard that we could only obtain very
small bits. Fortunately in climbing to the summit of the island the
sailors found some big pieces of rock broken off by the frost, and
these they embarked in their boats. Looking closely at them, I noticed
an exact resemblance between these rocks and the little bits of gneiss
which we had found in the stomach of a penguin we had killed the day
before. The little islet on which we landed is part of a group of eight
or ten of similar character and form; they are between five hundred and
six hundred yards from the nearest coast. We also noticed on the beach
several peaks and a cape quite free from snow. These islets, close as
they are to each other, seem to form a continuous chain parallel with
the coast, and stretching away from east to west."
On the 22nd and 23rd the survey of this coast was continued; but on the
second day an iceberg soldered to the coast compelled the vessels to
turn back towards the north, whilst at the same time a sudden and
violent snow-storm overtook and separated them. The -Zelée- especially
sustained considerable damage, but was able to rejoin her consort the
next day.
Throughout it all, however, sight of the land had not, so to speak,
been lost, but on the 29th the wind blew so strongly and persistently
from the east, that D'Urville had to abandon the survey of Adélie Land.
It was on this same day that he sighted the vessels of Lieutenant
Wilkes. D'Urville complains of the discourtesy of the latter, and says
that his own manoeuvres intended to open communications with them had
been misunderstood by the Americans.
"We are no longer," he says, "in the days when navigators in the
interests of commerce thought it necessary carefully to conceal their
route and their discoveries, to avoid the competition of rival nations.
I should, on the contrary, have been glad to point out to our emulators
the result of our researches, in the hope that such information might
be of use to them and increase our geographical knowledge."
On the 30th January a huge wall of ice was sighted, as to the nature of
which opinions were divided. Some said it was a compact and isolated
mass, others--and this was D'Urville's opinion--thought these lofty
mountains had a base of earth or of rocks, or that they might even be
the bulwarks of a huge extent of land which they called Clarie. It is
situated in 128 degrees E. long.
The officers had collected sufficient information in these latitudes to
determine the position of the southern magnetic pole, but the results
obtained by them did not accord with those given by Duperrey, Wilkes,
and Ross.
On the 17th February the two corvettes once more cast anchor off
Hobart's Town, and on the 25th set sail again for New Zealand, where
they completed the hydrographical surveys of the -Uranie-. They then
made for New Guinea, ascertained that it was not separated by a strait
from the Louisiade Archipelago, surveyed Torres Strait with the
greatest care, in spite of dangers from currents, coral reefs, &c.;
arrived at Timor on the 20th, and returned to Toulon on the 8th
November, after touching at Bourbon and St. Helena.
When the news of the grand discoveries made by the United States
reached England, a spirit of emulation was aroused, and the learned
societies decided on sending an expedition to the regions in which
Weddell and Biscoe had been the only explorers since the time of Cook.
Captain James Clark Ross, who was appointed to the command of this
expedition, was the nephew of the famous John Ross, explorer of
Baffin's Bay. Born in 1800, James Ross was a sailor from the age of
twelve. He accompanied his uncle in 1818 in his first Arctic
expedition, had taken part under Parry in four expeditions to the same
latitudes, and from 1829-1833 he had been his uncle's constant and
faithful companion. Entrusted with the taking of scientific
observations, he had discovered the north magnetic pole, and he had
also made a good many excursions across the ice on foot and in sledges.
He was, therefore, now one of the most experienced of British naval
officers in Polar expeditions.
[Illustration: Captain John Ross.]
Two vessels, the -Erebus- and the -Terror-, were entrusted to him, and
his second in command was an accomplished sailor, Captain Francis
Rowdon Crozier, companion of Parry in 1824; of Ross in 1835 in Baffin's
Bay; and the future companion of Franklin in the -Terror-, in his
search for the north-west passage. It would have been impossible to
find a braver or more experienced sailor.
The instructions given to James Ross by the Admiralty differed
essentially from those received by Wilkes and Dumont d'Urville. For the
latter the exploration of the Antarctic regions was but one incident of
their voyage round the world, whereas it was the very -raison d'être-
of Ross's journey. Of the three years he would be away from Europe, the
greater part was to be spent in the Antarctic regions, and he would
only leave the ice to repair the damages to his vessels or recruit the
health of his crew, worn out as they would probably be by fatigue and
sickness.
The vessels had been equally judiciously chosen, stronger than those of
D'Urville, they were better fitted to resist the repeated assaults of
the ice, and their seasoned crews had been chosen from sailors familiar
with polar navigation.
The -Erebus- and -Terror-, under the command of Ross and Crozier, left
England on the 29th September, 1839, and touched successively at
Madeira, the Cape Verd Islands, St. Helena, and the Cape of Good Hope,
where numerous magnetic observations were taken.
On the 12th April Ross reached Kerguelen's Island, and there landed his
instruments. The scientific harvest was abundant. Some fossil trees
were extracted from the lava of which this island is formed, and some
rich layers of coal were discovered, which have not yet been worked.
The 29th was fixed for simultaneous magnetic observations in different
parts of the globe, and by a singular coincidence some magnetic storms
such as had already visited Europe, were on this very day observed in
these latitudes. The instrument registered the same phenomena as at
Toronto, Canada, proving the vast extent of these meteoric
disturbances, and the incredible rapidity with which they spread.
On his arrival at Hobart Town, where his old friend John Franklin was
now governor, Ross heard of the discovery of Adélie and of Clarie Lands
by the French, and the simultaneous survey of them by Wilkes, who had
even left a sketch of his map of the coasts.
Ross, however, decided to make for E. long. 170 degrees, because it was
in that direction that Balleny had found an open sea extending to S.
lat. 69 degrees. He duly reached first the Auckland and then the
Campbell Islands, and after having, like his predecessors, tacked about
a great deal in a sea strewn with ice-islands, he came beyond the
sixty-third degree to the edge of the stationary ice, and on the 1st
January, 1841, crossed the Antarctic Circle.
The floating ice did not in any respect resemble that of the Arctic
regions, as James Ross very soon discovered. It consisted of huge
blocks, with regular and vertical walls, whilst the ice-fields, less
compact than those of the north, move about in chaotic confusion,
looking, to quote Wilkes' imaginative simile, like a heaving land, as
they alternately break away from each other and reunite.
To Ross the ice barrier did not present so formidable an appearance as
it had done to the French and Americans. He did not at first venture
upon it, however, being kept in the offing by storms. Not until the 5th
January was he able to penetrate to S. lat. 66 degrees 45 minutes, and
E. long. 174 degrees 16 minutes. Circumstances could not have been more
favourable, for the sea and wind were both acting upon and loosening
the ice, and thanks to the strength of his vessels, Ross was able to
cut a passage. As he advanced further and further southward, the fog
became denser and the constant snow-storms added to the already serious
dangers of navigation. Encouraged, however, by the reflection in the
sky of an open sea, a phenomenon which turned out to be trustworthy, he
pushed on, and on the 9th January, after crossing 200 miles of ice he
actually entered that open sea!
On the 11th January land was sighted 100 miles ahead in S. lat. 70
degrees 47 minutes and E. long. 172 degrees 36 minutes. This, the most
southern land ever yet discovered, consisted of snow-clad peaks with
glaciers sloping down to the sea, the peaks rising to a height of from
nine to twelve thousand feet. This estimate, judging from D'Urville's
remarks on Graham's Land, may, however, possibly be an exaggerated one.
Here, there, and everywhere, black rocks rose up from the snow, but the
coast was so shut in with ice that landing was impossible. This curious
series of huge peaks received the name of Admiralty chain, and the
country itself that of Victoria.
[Illustration: Map of Victoria, discovered by James Ross. -Engraved by
E. Morieu.-]
A few little islands were made out in the south-east before the vessels
left this coast, and on the 12th January the two captains, with some of
their officers, disembarked on one of the volcanic islets, and took
possession of it in the name of England. Not the slightest trace of
vegetation was found upon it.
Ross soon ascertained that the eastern side of this vast land sloped
towards the south, whilst the northern stretched away to the
north-west. He, therefore, skirted along the eastern beach, forcing a
passage in a southerly direction beyond the magnetic pole, which he
places near S. lat. 76 degrees, and then returning by the west, thus
entirely circumnavigating his new discovery, which he looked upon as a
very large island. The mountain chain extends all along the coast. Ross
gave to the principal peaks the names of Herschell, Whewell,
Wheatstone, Murchison, and Melbourne. He was unable, however, on
account of the ever-increasing quantity of ice about the coast, to make
out the details of its outlines. On the 23rd January the seventy-fourth
degree, the most southerly latitude ever reached, was passed.
The vessels were now considerably hampered by fogs, southerly gales,
and violent snow-storms, but they managed to continue their cruise
along the coast, and on the 27th January the English disembarked on a
little volcanic island in S. lat. 76 degrees 8 minutes and E. long. 168
degrees 12 minutes, to which they gave the name of Franklin.
The next day a huge mountain was seen, which rose abruptly to a height
of 12,000 feet above a far-stretching land. The summit, of regular
form, and completely covered with snow, was every now and then wrapped
in a thick cloud of smoke, no less than 300 feet in diameter. Taking
this diameter as a standard of measure, the height of the cloud, in
shape like an inverted cone, would be about one-half of it. When this
cloud of smoke dispersed, a bare crater was discovered, lit up by a
bright red glow, visible even in broad daylight. The sides of the
mountain were covered with snow up to the very crater, and it was
impossible to make out any signs of a flow of lava.
A volcano is always a magnificent spectacle, and the sight of this one
rising up from amongst the Antarctic ice, and excelling Etna and
Teneriffe in its marvellous activity, could not fail to make a vivid
impression upon the minds of the explorers. The name of Erebus was
given to it, and that of Terror to an extinct crater on the east of it,
both titles being admirably appropriate.
The two vessels continued their cruise along the northern coast of
Victoria, until their further passage was barred by a huge mass of ice
towering 505 feet above their masts. Behind this barrier rose another
mountain chain, which sunk out of sight in the S.S.E., and to which the
name of Parry was given. Ross skirted along the ice barrier in an
easterly direction until the 2nd February, when he reached S. lat. 78
degrees 4 minutes, the most southerly point attained on this trip,
during which he had followed the shores of the land he had discovered
for more than 300 miles. He left it in E. long. 191 degrees 23 minutes.
But for the strong favourable winds which now blew, it seems probable
that the vessels would never have issued in safety from amongst the
formidable ice masses through which they finally worked their way at
the cost of incredible exertions and fatigues, and in face of incessant
danger.
On the 15th February yet another attempt was made in S. lat. 76 degrees
to reach the magnetic pole; but further progress was barred by land in
S. lat. 76 degrees 12 minutes and E. long. 164 degrees, i.e. sixty-five
ordinary miles from the position assigned to it (the magnetic pole) by
Ross, and the appearance of this land was forbidding and the sea so
rough that the explorer gave up all idea of continuing his researches
on shore.
After identifying the islands discovered in 1839 by Balleny, Ross found
himself on the 6th March amongst the mountains alluded to by Wilkes.
"On the 4th March," says Ross's narrative, "they recrossed the
Antarctic Circle, and being necessarily close by the eastern extreme of
those -patches of land- which Lieut. Wilkes has called 'the Antarctic
Continent,' and having reached the latitude on the 5th, they steered
directly for them; and at noon on the 6th, the ship being exactly over
the centre of this mountain range, they could obtain no soundings with
600 fathoms of line; and having traversed a space of eighty miles in
every direction from this spot, during beautiful clear weather, which
extended their vision widely around, were obliged to confess that this
position, at least, of the pseudo-antarctic continent, and the nearly
200 miles of barrier represented to extend from it, have no real
existence."[1]
[Footnote 1: The Editor of the -Literary Gazette- adds the following
note. "Lieutenant Wilkes may have mistaken some clouds or fog-banks,
which in these regions are very likely to assume the appearance of land
to inexperienced eyes, for this continent and range of lofty mountains.
If so, the error is to be regretted, as it must tend to throw discredit
on other portions of his discoveries, which have a more substantial
foundation."---Trans.-]
The expedition got back to Tasmania without having a single case of
sickness on board or sustaining the slightest damage. The vessels were
here refitted, and the instruments regulated before starting on a
second trip, on which Sydney and Island's Bay, New Zealand, and
Chatham, were the first stations touched at by Ross to make magnetic
observations. On the 18th December, in S. lat. 62 degrees 40 minutes
and E. long, 146 degrees, ice was encountered 300 miles further north
than in the preceding year. The vessels had arrived too early, but
Ross, nevertheless, endeavoured to break through this formidable
barrier. After penetrating for 300 miles he was stopped by masses so
compact that it was impossible to go further, and he did not cross the
Antarctic Circle until the 1st January, 1842. On the 19th of the same
month the two vessels encountered the most violent storm just as they
were entering an open sea; the -Erebus- and -Terror- lost their helms,
floating ice washed over them, and for twenty-six hours they were in
danger of going down.
The detention of the expedition amongst the ice lasted no less than
forty-six days, and not until the 22nd did Ross reach the great barrier
of stationary ice, which was considerably lower beyond Erebus, where it
was no less than 200 feet high. When Ross came to it this year it was
only 107 feet high, and it was 150 miles further east than it had been
on the previous expedition. The acquisition of this piece of
geographical information was the only result of this arduous campaign,
extending over 136 days, and greatly excelling in dramatic interest the
preceding expedition.
The vessels now made for Cape Horn, and sailed up the coast as far as
Rio de Janeiro, where they found everything of which they stood in
need. As soon as they had laid in a stock of provisions they again put
to sea and reached the Falkland Islands, whence, on the 17th December,
1842, they started on their third trip.
The first ice was this time met with near Clarence Island, and on the
25th December Ross found his further progress barred by it. He then
made for the New Shetland Islands, completed the survey of Louis
Philippe and Joinville Lands, discovered by Dumont d'Urville, named
Mts. Haddington and Parry, ascertained that Louis Philippe's Land is
only a large island, and visited Bransfield Strait, separating it from
Shetland. Such were the marvellous results obtained by James Ross in
his three expeditions.
To assign to the three explorers, whose work in the Antarctic regions
we have been reviewing, his just meed of praise, we may say that
D'Urville first discovered the Antarctic continent; Wilkes traced its
shores for a considerable distance, for we cannot fail to recognize the
resemblance between his map and that of the French navigator; and that
James Ross visited the most southerly and most interesting part.
But is there such a continent after all? D'Urville was not quite sure
about it, and Ross did not believe in it. We must leave the decision of
this great question to the later explorers who were to follow in the
footsteps of the intrepid sailors whose voyages and discoveries we have
related.
II.
THE NORTH POLE.
Anjou and Wrangell--The "polynia"--John Ross's first expedition--
Baffin's Bay closed--Edward Parry's discoveries on his first voyage--
The survey of Hudson's Bay, and the discovery of Fury and Hecla
Straits--Parry's third voyage--Fourth voyage--On the ice in sledges in
the open sea--Franklin's first trip--Incredible sufferings of the
explorers--Second expedition--John Ross--Four winters amongst the ice--
Dease and Simpson's expedition.
We have more than once alluded to the great impulse given to
geographical science by Peter I. One of the earliest results of this
impulse was the discovery by Behring of the straits separating Asia
from America, and the most important was the survey thirty years later
of the Liakhov Archipelago, or New Siberia.
In 1770 a merchant named Liakhov noticed a large herd of reindeer
coming across the ice from the north, and he reflected that they could
only have come from a country where there were pastures enough to
support them. A month later he started in a sledge, and after a journey
of fifty miles he discovered between the mouths of the Lena and
Indighirka three large islands, the vast deposits of fossil ivory on
which have since become celebrated all over the world.
In 1809 Hedenstroem received instructions to make a map of this new
discovery. He made several attempts to cross the frozen ocean on a
sledge, but was always turned back by ice which would not bear him. He
came to the conclusion that there must be an open sea beyond, and he
founded this opinion on the immense quantity of warm water which flows
into the Arctic Ocean from the great rivers of Asia.
In March, 1821, Lieutenant (afterwards Admiral) Anjou crossed the ice
to within forty-two miles of the north of the island of Kotelnoï, and
in N. lat. 76 degrees 38 minutes saw a vapour which led him to believe
in the existence of an open sea. In a second trip he actually saw this
sea with its drifting ice, and came back convinced of the impossibility
of going further in a sledge on account of the thinness of the ice.
Whilst Anjou was thus employed, another naval officer, Lieutenant
Wrangell, collected some important traditions about the existence of
land the other side of Cape Yakan.
From a Tchouktchi chief he learnt that in fine weather--though never in
the winter--from the coast and some reefs at the mouth of a river
mountains covered with snow could be seen far away in the north; and
that in former days when the sea was frozen over reindeer used to come
from there. The chief had himself once seen a herd of reindeer on their
way back to the north by this route and he had followed them in a
sledge for a whole day until the state of the ice compelled him to give
up the experiment.
His father had told him, too, that a Tchouktchi had once gone there
with a few companions in a skin boat, but he did not know what they had
discovered or what had become of them. He was sure that the land in the
north was inhabited, because a dead whale had once been washed on to
Aratane Island with spears tipped with slate in its flesh, and the
Tchouktchis never used such weapons.
These facts were very curious, and they increased Wrangell's desire to
penetrate to the unknown northern districts; but the truth of all the
rumours was not verified until our own day.
Between 1820 and 1824 Wrangell made four expeditions in sledges from
the mouth of the Kolyma, which he made his headquarters, first
exploring the coast to Cape Tchelagskoi, and enduring thirty-five
degrees of cold; and in his second trip trying how far he could go
across the ice, an experiment resulting in a journey of 400 miles from
the land. In the third year (1822), Wrangell started in March with a
view to verifying the report of a native who said he had seen land in
the offing. He now came to an icefield, on which he advanced safely for
a long distance, when it began to be less compact and was soon not
solid enough to bear many sledges, so two small ones were selected, on
which were packed a wherry, some planks, and some tools. The explorer
then ventured on some melting ice which broke under his feet.
[Illustration: "Two small sledges were selected."]
"At the outset," says Wrangell, "I had to make way for seven wersts
across a bed of brine; further on appeared a surface furrowed with
great -crevasses-, which we could only succeed in clearing by the help
of our planks. I noticed in this part several small mounds of ice in
such a liquefying condition that the slightest touch would suffice to
break it and convert the mound into a round slough. The ice upon which
we were travelling was without consistency, was but a foot in
thickness, and--what was more--was riddled with holes.... I could only
compare the appearance of the sea, at this stage, to an immense morass;
and indeed the muddy water which issued from these thousands of
crevasses, opening up in every direction, the melting snow mixed with
earth and sand, those little mounds whence numerous streamlets were
issuing,--all these combined to make the illusion perfect."
Wrangell had advanced some 140 miles, and it was the open sea or the
-polynia---as he calls vast expanses of water--north of Siberia, the
outskirts of which he had reached, the same in fact as that already
sighted by Leontjew in 1764, and Hedenstroem in 1810.
On his fourth voyage Wrangell and his small party of followers started
from Cape Yakan, the nearest point to the Arctic regions, and, after
passing Cape Tchelagskoi, made for the north; but a violent storm broke
up the ice, there only three feet thick, and involved the explorers in
the greatest danger. Now dragged across some large unbroken slab, now
wet to the waist on a moving plank, sometimes above and sometimes under
water, or moored to a block serving as a ferryboat, which the swimming
dogs dragged along, they at last succeeded in crossing the shifting
reverberating ice and regaining the land, owing their life to the
strength and agility of their teams of dogs alone. Thus closed the last
attempt made to reach the districts north of Siberia.
The Arctic calotte[1] was meanwhile being attacked from the other side
with equal energy and yet more perseverance. It will be remembered with
what untiring enthusiasm the famous north-west passage had been sought.
No sooner had the peace of 1815 necessitated the disarmament of
numerous English vessels and set free their officers on half-pay, than
the Admiralty, unwilling to let experienced seamen rust in idleness,
sought for them some employment. It was under these circumstances that
the search for the north-west passage was resumed.
[Footnote 1: The word -calotte- here used by Verne is untranslateable.
It signifies, literally, a particular kind of cap, frequently a monk's
cap or cowl.---Trans.-]
The -Alexander-, 252 tons, and the -Isabel-, 385, under command of the
experienced officers, John Ross and Lieutenant Parry, with James Ross,
Back, and Belcher, who were to win honour in Arctic explorations
amongst their subordinates, were sent by the Government to explore
Baffin's Bay and set sail on the 18th April. After touching at the
Shetland Islands, and seeking in vain for the submerged land seen by
Bass in N. lat. 57 degrees 28 minutes, the explorers came on the 26th
May to the first ice, and on the 2nd June surveyed the western coast of
Greenland, hitherto very imperfectly laid down in maps, finding it
greatly encumbered by ice. Indeed the governor of the Dutch settlement
of Whale Island told them that the severity of the winter months had
been steadily increasing during the eleven years of his residence in
the country.
Hitherto it had been supposed that the country was uninhabited beyond
75 degrees N. lat., and the travellers were therefore greatly surprised
to see a whole tribe of Esquimaux arrive by way of the ice. They knew
nothing of any race but their own, and stared at the English without
daring to touch them, one of them even addressing to the vessels in a
grave and solemn voice the inquiries, Who are you? Whence do you come?
From the sun or from the moon?
[Illustration: Esquimaux family. (Fac-simile of early engraving.)]
Although in many respects far inferior to the Esquimaux who had become
to some extent civilized by long intercourse with Europeans, the
new-comers understood the use of iron, of which a few of them had even
succeeded in making knives. This iron as far as the English could
gather was dug out of a mountain. It was probably of meteoric origin.
As public opinion in England subsequently confirmed, Ross, in spite of
qualities as a naval officer of the highest order, showed extraordinary
apathy and levity on this voyage, appearing not to trouble himself in
the least about the geographical problems for the solution of which the
expedition was organized. He passed Wolstenholme and Whale Sounds and
Smith's Strait, opening out of Baffin's Bay, without examining them,
the last named at so great a distance that he did not even recognize
it. Still worse than that was his conduct later. Cruising down the
western shores of Baffin's Bay a long deep gulf no less than fifty
miles across gradually came in sight of the eager explorers, yet when
on the 29th August the two vessels had sailed up it for thirty miles
only Ross gave orders to tack about, on the ground that he distinctly
saw at the further end a chain of lofty mountains to which he gave the
name of Croker. His officers did not share his opinion; they could not
see so much as the slightest sign of a hill, for the very excellent
reason that the gulf they had entered was really Lancaster Sound, so
named by Baffin, and connecting his bay with the western Arctic Ocean.
The same sort of thing occurred again and again in the voyage along
this deeply indented coast, the vessels keeping so far off shore that
not a detail could be made out. Thus it came about that Cumberland Bay
was passed on the 1st October without any survey of that most important
feature of Davis Strait, and Ross returned to England, having literally
turned his back on the glory awaiting him.
When accused of apathy and neglect of duty, Ross replied with supreme
indifference, "I trust, as I believe myself, that the objects of the
voyage have been in every important point accomplished; that I have
proved the existence of a bay, from Disco to Cumberland Strait, and set
at rest for ever the question of a north-west passage in this
direction."
It would have been impossible to make a more complete mistake. But
fortunately the failure of this expedition did not in the least
discourage other explorers. Some saw in it a brilliant confirmation of
the venerable Baffin's discovery, others looked upon the innumerable
inlets, with their deep waters and strong currents, as something more
than mere bays. They were straits, and all hope of the discovery of the
north-west passage was not yet lost.
[Illustration: Map of the Arctic Regions. -Engraved by E. Morieu.-]
These suggestions so far weighed with the English Admiralty as to lead
to the equipment of two small vessels, the bomb-vessel -Hecla- and the
brigantine -Griper-, which left the Thames on the 5th May, 1819, under
command of Lieutenant William Parry, whose opinion as to the existence
of the north-west passage had not coincided with that of his chief. The
vessels reached Lancaster Sound without meeting with any special
adventures, and after a delay of seven days amongst the ice which
encumbered the sea for a distance of eighty miles, they entered the
supposed Bay "shut in by a mountain chain" of John Ross, to find not
only that this mountain chain did not exist, but that the bay was a
strait more than 310 fathoms deep, where the influence of the tide
could be felt. The temperature of the water rose some ten degrees, and
in the course of a single day no less than eighty full-grown whales
were seen.
On the 31st July the explorers landed on the shores of Possession Bay,
visited by them the previous year, and found there their own
footprints, a sign of the small quantity of snow and hoar frost which
had fallen during the winter. All hearts beat high when with a
favourable wind and all sails set the two vessels entered Lancaster
Sound.
"It is more easy," says Parry, "to imagine than to describe the almost
breathless anxiety which was now visible in every countenance, while,
as the breeze continued to a fresh gale, we ran quickly up the sound.
The mast-heads were crowded by the officers and men during the whole
afternoon; and an unconcerned observer, if any could have been
unconcerned on such an occasion, would have been amused by the
eagerness with which the various reports from the crow's-nest were
received; all, however, hitherto favourable to our most sanguine
hopes."
The two coasts extended in a parallel line as far as the eye could
reach, that is to say for a distance exceeding fifty miles, and the
height of the waves together with the absence of ice combined to
convince the English that they had reached the open sea by way of the
long sought passage, when an island framed in masses of ice checked
their further progress.
An arm of the sea, however, some twelve leagues wide, opened on the
south, and by it the explorers hoped to find a passage less encumbered
with ice. Strange to say, as they had advanced in a westerly direction
through Lancaster Sound, the vibrations of the pendulum had increased,
whilst now it appeared to have lost all motion, and "we now therefore
witnessed for the first time the curious phenomenon of the directive
power of the needle becoming so weak as to be completely overcome by
the attraction of the ship; so that the needle might now be properly
said to point to the north pole of the ship."
The arm of the sea widened as the vessels advanced in a westerly
direction, and the shores seemed to bend sensibly towards the
south-west, but after making some 120 miles further progress was again
barred by ice. The explorers therefore returned to Barrow's Strait, of
which Lancaster Sound is but the entry, and once more entered the sea,
now free from the ice, by which it had been encumbered a few days
previously.
In W. long. 92 degrees 1 minute 4 seconds was discovered an inlet
called Wellington Channel, about eight leagues wide, entirely free from
ice and apparently not bounded by any land. The existence of these
numerous straits led the explorers to the conclusion that they were in
the midst of a vast archipelago, an opinion daily receiving fresh
confirmation. The dense fogs, however, made navigation difficult, and
the number of little islands and shallows increased whilst the ice
became more compact. Parry, however, was not to be deterred from
pressing on towards the west, and presently his sailors found, on a
large island, to which the name of Bathurst was given, the remains of
some Esquimaux huts and traces of the former presence of reindeer.
Magnetic observations were now taken, pointing to the conclusion that
the magnetic pole had been passed on the north.
Another large island, that of Melville, soon came in sight, and in
spite of the fogs and ice the expedition succeeded in passing W. long.
110 degrees, thus earning the reward of 100-l-. sterling promised by
the English Government. A promontory near Melville Island was named
Cape Munificence, whilst a good harbour close by was called Hecla and
Griper Bay. It was in Winter Harbour at the end of this bay that the
vessels passed the winter. "Dismantled for the most part," says Parry,
"the yards however being laid for walls and roofed in with thick
wadding tilts, they were sheltered from the snow, whilst stoves and
ovens were fixed inside." Hunting was useless, and resulted in nothing
but the frost-biting of the limbs of some of the hunters, as Melville
Island was deserted at the end of October by all animals except wolves
and foxes. To get through the long winter without dying of ennui was no
easy matter, but the officers hit upon the plan of setting up a
theatre, the first representation in which was given on the 6th
November, the day of the disappearance of the sun for three months. A
special piece was given on Christmas day, in which allusion was made to
the situation of the vessels, and a weekly paper was started called the
-North Georgia Gazette and Winter Chronicle-, which with Sabine, as
editor, run into twenty-one numbers, all printed on the return to
Europe of the expedition.
In January scrofula broke out, and with such virulence as to cause
considerable alarm, but the evil was soon checked by skilful treatment
and the daily distribution of mustard and cress, which Parry had
managed to grow in boxes round his stove.
On the 7th February the sun reappeared, and although many months must
elapse before it would be possible to leave Melville Island,
preparations for a start were at once begun. On the 30th April the
thermometer rose to zero, and the sailors taking this low temperature
for summer wanted to leave off their winter clothes. The first
ptarmigan appeared on the 12th May, and on the following day were seen
traces of reindeer and of musk goats on their way to the north; but
what caused the greatest delight and surprise to the crews was the fall
of rain on the 24th May.
"We had been so unaccustomed to see water naturally in a fluid state at
all, and much less to see it fall from the heavens, that such an
occurrence became a matter of considerable curiosity, and I believe
every person on board hastened on deck to witness so interesting as
well as novel a phenomenon."
[Illustration: Rain as a novel phenomenon.]
During the first fortnight in June, Parry, accompanied by some of his
officers, made an excursion to the most northerly part of Melville
Island. On his return, vegetation was everywhere to be seen, the ice
was beginning to melt, and it was evident that a start could soon be
made. The vessels began to move on the 1st August, but the ice had not
yet broken up in the offing, and they got no further than the eastern
extremity of Melville Island, of which the furthest point reached by
Parry was in N. lat. 113 degrees 46 minutes 13 seconds and W. long. 113
degrees 46 minutes 43 seconds. The voyage back was unmarked by any
special incident, and the expedition got back to England towards the
middle of November.
The results of this voyage were numerous and important. Not only had a
vast extent of the Arctic regions been surveyed; but physical and
magnetic observations had been taken, and many new details collected on
their climate and animal and vegetable life. In fact in a single trip
Parry did more than was accomplished in thirty years by all who
followed in his steps.
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